Natural occurrence of natural enemies is common in storage, processing, transportation and marketing facilities (see Prevalence of naturally occurring natural enemies page) so conservation biological control may be applicable. Many parasitoids and predators have shorter egg to adult developmental times than their host or prey allowing their populations to grow more rapidly than those of host or prey (Table Developmental time natural enemies). Natural enemies developed between 27.5 and 32.5oC in a fraction (% in parenthenses) of the time that their host or prey do, Habrobracon hebetor on Ephestia kuhniella (20.40%), Plastanoxus westwoodi on Cryptolestes pusillus (39.80%), Xylocoris flavipes on Plodia interpunctella (43.10%), Cephalonomia tarsalis on Oryzaephilus surinamensis (48.70%), Lariophagus distinguendus on Sitophilus oryzae (50.40%), Anisopteromalus calandrae on Callosobruchus maculatus (57.40%), Lyctocoris campestris on Plodia interpunctella (57.50%), Theocolax elegans on Sitophilus zeamais (57.90%),Venturia canescens on Plodia interpunctella (58.80%).
Feeding and sheltering of natural enemies have been shown to be beneficial and the chemical ecology of these natural enemies has been studied so there are opportunities to improve their efficacy using semiochemicals. Insecticide resistant strains of natural enemies may make possible the use of insecticides and natural enemies together (see insecticide resistant natural enemies). Also, cooling commodities by aeration can slow larval development of host or prey and give natural enemies more time to find host or prey. Wyckhuys et al. 2013 provides a meta-analysis of current and potential use of conservation biological control for insect crop pests in the developing world.
Wyckhuys, Kris AG, Yanhui Lu, Helda Morales, Luis L. Vazquez, Jesusa C. Legaspi, Panagiotis A. Eliopoulos, and Luis M. Hernandez 2013. Current status and potential of conservation biological control for agriculture in the developing world. Biological Control 65(1): 152-167.
Other pages on biological control are:
Insecticide Resistant Natural Enemies
Natural enemies of Tribolium castaneum
Phthorimaea operculella natural enemies
Prevalence of naturally occurring natural enemies
Trichogramma natural enemies of stored-product insects
Adult Feeding
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Desouhant, Emmanuel, Patrice Lucchetta, David Giron, and Carlos Bernstein. 2010. Feeding Activity Pattern in a Parasitic Wasp When Foraging in the Field. Ecological Research 25 (2): 419–428.
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Pelosse, P., I. Amat, C. Bernstein, and E. Desouhant. 2010. The Dynamics of Energy Allocation in Adult Arrhenotokous and Thelytokous Venturia canescens. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 135(1): 68–76.
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Stein-Beling, I. 1969. Uber den ausflug der schlupfwespe Nemeritis canescens Grav. und uber die bedeutung des geruchssinnes bei der ruckkehr zum wirt (The Flight of the Parasite Nemeritis canescens and the Significance of the Olfactory Organs for the Return). Biologisches Zentralblatt 54: 147–169.
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Sheltering with facilitator box
Lucas, E.; Riudavets, J.; Castañe, C. 2015. A banker box to improve the impact of Habrobracon hebetor on stored product insects. IOBCWPRS Bull.111: 403–407.
Niedermayer, S., and J. L. M. Steidle. 2008. Development of a Mass Rearing Device for the Use of Lariophagus distinguendus (Förster) against Sitophilus granarius L. in Grain. IOBC/Wprs Bulletin 40: 165–169.
Niedermayer, S. and Steidle, J.L.M. 2013. The Hohenheimer Box—A new way to rear and release Lariophagus distinguendusto control stored product pest insects. Biol. Control 64: 263–269.
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Semiochemicals
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Boeye, J., GA Laborius, and FA Schulz 1992. The Response of Teretriosoma nigrescens Lewis (Col, Histeridae) to the Pheromone of Prostephanus truncatus (Horn) (Col, Bostrichidae). Anzeiger Fur Schadlingskunde Pflanzenschutz Umweltschutz 65(8): 153–157.
Chiu-Alvarado, Pilar, Juan F. Barrera, and Julio C. Rojas 2009. Attraction of Prorops nasuta (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae), a parasitoid of the coffee berry borer (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), to host-associated olfactory cues. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 102(1): 166-171
Chiu-Alvarado, Pilar, and Julio C. Rojas 2011. Behavioural responses of bethylid parasitoid species of the coffee berry borer to chemicals cues from host and non-host dust/frass. BioControl 56(1): 45-53. (Cephalonomia stephanoderis, Prorops nasuta)
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Cooling increases search time
Anisopteromalus calandrae on Callosobruchus maculatus
Mobarakian, M., A. A. Zamani, J. Karmizadeh, N. Moeeny Naghadeh, and M. S. Emami 2014. Modelling Development of Callosobruchus maculatus and Anisopteromalus calandrae at Various Constant Temperatures Using Linear and Non-Linear Models. Biocontrol Science and Technology 24 (11): 1308–1320. (33.7 days developmental time at 25oC – 26.3 days at 30oC = 7.5 days slower so search time increased.)
Moosavi, Masoomeh, Nooshin Zandi-Sohani, and Ali Rajabpour 2000. Influence of Temperature on the Functional Response of Anisopteromalus calandrae (Hym.: Pteromalidae) to Different Population Densities of Callosobruchus maculatus (Col.: Bruchidae). IOBC-WPRS Bulletin 148: 173–80. (attack rate of 0.0327/hour at 25oC not significantly different from 0.0531/hour at 30oC.)
Anisopteromalus calandrae on Rhyzopertha dominica
Faroni, L. R., and F. Garcia-Mari. 1992. Influence of temperature on the biological parameters of Rhyzopertha dominica (F.). (Influencia de la temperatura sobre los parametros biologicos de Rhyzopertha dominica (F.).). Boletin de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas 18: 455-467. (48.1 days for development of fourth instar at 24oC minus 28.1 days at 32oC = 20 days slower so search time increased.)
Rahman, Md Moshfikur, and W. Islam. 2019. Temperature and Host Dependent Functional Response of Anisopteromalus calandrae (How.) and Choetospila elegans (Westw.) Parasitods in Parasitizing Wheat Infesting Rhyzopertha dominica (F.)(Coleoptera: Bostrichidae). Bangladesh Journal of Zoology 47 (1): 41–47. (Attack rates were lower at 25oC than at 30oC)
Anisopteromalus calandrae on Sitophilus zeamais
Throne, J. E. 1994. Life history of immature maize weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on corn stored at constant temperature and relative humidities in the laboratory. Environ. Entomol. 23: 1459-1471. (40.2 days for development at 25oC minus 31.9 days at 30oC = 8.3 days slower and search time increased.)
Smith, L. 1994. Temperature Influences Functional-Response of Anisopteromalus calandrae (Hymenoptera, Pteromalidae) Parasitizing Maize Weevil Larvae in Shelled Corn. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 87(6): 849–855. (Attach rates were same at 25oC and 30oC.)
Cephalonomia tarsalis on Oryzaephilus surinamensis
Beckett, S. J. & Evans, D. E. 1999. The demography of Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) (Coleoptera: Silvanidae) on kibbled wheat. Journal of Stored Product Research 30: 121-137. (34.2 days developmental time at 25oC minus 22.4 days at 30oC = 11.8 days slower so search time is increased.)
Lukas, Jan. 2005. Temperature Dependent Functional Response of Cephalonomia tarsalis (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae). In Biocontrol of Arthropod Pests in Stored Products. Proceedings of the 6th meeting of Working Group IV of the COST Action 842 edited by L. S. Hansen and M. Wakefield, 57–63. (Attack rate at 24oC was higher than that at 30oC.)
Cephalonomia waterstoni on Cryptolestes ferrugineus
Smith, L. B. 1965. The intrinsic rate of natural increase of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) (Coleoptera, Cucujidae). J. Stored Prod. Res. 1: 35-49. (44.8 days developmental time at 25oC minus 27.3 days at 30oC = 17.5 days slower so search time is increased.) Flinn, P. W. 1991. Temperature-dependent functional response of the parasitoid Cephalonomia waterstoni (Gahan) (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) attacking rusty grain beetle larvae (Coleoptera: Cucujidae). Environ. Entomol. 20: 872-876. (Attack rate at 25oC was the same as that at 30oC.)
Habrobracon hebetor on Plodia interpunctella
Na, J. H., and M. I. Ryoo. 1998. Effects of temperature on the life history of Indian meal moth (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera) on brown rice. Korean J. Appl. Entomol. 37:143-149. (62.3 days developmental time at 25oC minus 38.1 days at 32oC = 24.2 days slower so search time increased.)
Zhong, B. Z., Z. F. Xu, and W. Q. Qin. 2009. Influence of Temperature on Functional Response of Habrobracon hebetor (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) Attacking Larvae of Plodia interpunctella Hübner (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Acta Entomologica Sinica 52(4): 395–400. (Habrobracon hebetor can parasitize more hosts within the 26 to 29°C temperature range.)
Lariophagus distinguendus on Sitophilus oryzae
Ryoo, M., and K. J. Cho. 1988. A Model for the Temperature-Dependent Developmental Rate of Sitophilus oryzae L (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) on Rice. J. Stored Prod. Res. 24: 79-82. (9.2 days fourth instar developmental time at 25oC minus 8.0 days at 32oC = 1.2 days slower so search time increased.)
Hong, Y. S., and Ryoo, M. I. 1991. Effect of temperature on the functional and numerical responses of Lariophagus distinguendus (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) to various densities of the host, Sitophilus oryzae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 84: 837-840. (Search efficiency was not related to temperature.)
Theocolax elegans on Rhyzopertha dominica
Faroni, L. R., and F. Garcia-Mari. 1992. Influence of temperature on the biological parameters of Rhyzopertha dominica (F.). (Influencia de la temperatura sobre los parametros biologicos de Rhyzopertha dominica (F.).). Boletin de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas 18: 455-467. (48.1 days fourth instar developmental time at 24oC minus 28.1 days at 32oC = 20 days slower so search time increased.)
Flinn, P. W., and Hagstrum, D. W. 2002. Temperature-mediated functional response of Theocolax elegans(Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) parasitizing Rhyzopertha dominica (Coleoptera:Bostrichidae) in stored wheat. J. Stored Prod. Res. 38:185-190. (Functional response of Theocolax elegans parasitizing Rhyzopertha dominica is almost the same at 25 and 32oC.)
Rahman, Md Moshfikur, and W. Islam. 2019. Temperature and Host Dependent Functional Response of Anisopteromalus calandrae (How.) and Choetospila elegans (Westw.) Parasitods in Parasitizing Wheat Infesting Rhyzopertha dominica (F.)(Coleoptera: Bostrichidae). Bangladesh Journal of Zoology 47 (1): 41–47. (Attack rates were lower at 25oC than at 30oC)
storedproductinsects 