Fumigants are volatile gases that penetrate commodities and the air space in equipment and facilities. Gravity can result in heavier than air fumigants introduced at the top penetrating commodities and lighter than air fumigants introduced at bottom rising. Natural ventilation in the air spaces between granular commodities can move fumigants up or down depending upon the commodity temperature and the outside air temperature. Recirculation or combining a fumigant with another fumigant or carrier solvent such as carbon dioxide have been used to increase the uniformity of fumigant distribution. Recirculation fumigation was patented by Moffett in 1927 to reduce the sorption of hydrogen cyanide fumigant. Recirculation fumigation was popular in Europe in the late 1920’s and early 1930’s (Munro 1956). Quarantine of pink bollworm and grain surpluses in 1948 increased research on recirculation fumigation in the United States. The use of carbon dioxide to increase the effectiveness of fumigants was patented by Cotton and Young in 1935. Perforated tubing has been used to distribute fumigant during in-transit fumigation of grain. Trickle method has been used to add fumigant to replace fumigant lost by leakage.
Sorption of fumigant into commodity and leakage can reduce the fumigant concentration in air space in granular commodities. Sorption of hydrogen phosphide, methyl bromide, ethylene dibromide and hydrocyanic acid by wheat and corn was greater as the moisture content increased (Vincent and Lindgren 1971). Sorption is inversely related to temperature (Walters 1991). Repeated fumigation of the same grain reduced the rate at which phosphine sorbed into wheat (Reed and Pan 2000). Leakage can reduce the uniformity of fumigant distribution and sealing can help increase uniformity. Wind can increase leakage, so not fumigating on a windy day is recommended.
References are listed under the following categories:
Reviews
Gravity and Natural Ventilation
Recirculation
Carrier Solvent
Perforated Tubing
Trickle Method
Sorption
Wind
Leakage
Sealing and Pressure Test
Reviews
Bond, E. J. 1984. Manual of fumigation for insect control. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 54
Lindgren, D. L. and L. E. Vincent. 1962. Fumigation of food commodities for insect control. p. 85-152. In R. L. Metcalf [ed.] Advances in Pest Control Research Volume 5, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Monro, H.A.U. 1969. Manual of Fumigation for Insect Control, 2nd ed. Agric. Studies Pub. 79. Food and Agriculture of United Nations, Rome.
Mueller, D. 1990. Fumigation. p. 901-939. In Keith Story and Dan Moreland eds. Handbook of Pest Control, The Behavior, Life History and Control of Household Pests, 7th ed. Franzak and Foster, Cleveland, OH.
Mueller, D. 1997. Fumigation. pp. 1103-1152. In: Hedges, S., Ed. Mallis Handbook of Pest Control. 8th Edition. Mallis Handbook and Technical Training Company.
Page, A. B., and O. F. Lubatti. 1963. Fumigation of insects. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 8: 239-264.
Phillips, T. W., E. M. Thoms, J. DeMark, and S. Walse. 2012. Fumigation, pp. 157-177. In D. W. Hagstrum, T. W. Phillips and G. Cuperus eds. Stored Product Protection, vol. S156. Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
Thoms, E. M. and T. W. Phillips. 2004. Fumigation, pp. 1165-1216. In D. Moreland and S. A. Hedges eds. Handbook of Pest Control, The Behavior, Life History and Control of Household Pests, 9th ed. GIE Media, Cleveland, OH.
Walter, V. E. 1991. Fumigation in the food industry. p. 441-457. In Gorham, J. R. [ed.], Ecology and Management of Food Industry Pests, Assoc. Official Analytical Chem., Arlington, Virginia.
Walter, V. 2006. Commodity and space fumigations in the food industry. Pages 183-198 in: Insect Management for Food Storage and Processing, 2nd ed. J. Heaps (ed.) AACC International, St. Paul, MN.
Gravity and Natural Ventilation
Banks, H. J., and P. C. Annis. 1984a. Importance of processes of natural ventilation to fumigation and controlled atmosphere storage. p. 299-323. In Ripp, B.E. Ed. Controlled Atmosphere and Fumigation in Grain Storages, 11-22 Apr 1983, Perth, Australia. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Banks, H.J., and Annis, P.C. 1984b. On criteria for success of phosphine fumigations based on observations of gas distribution patterns. p. 327-341. In: Ripp, B.E., et al. ed., Controlled atmosphere and fumigation in grain storages. 11-22 Apr 1983, Perth, Australia, Amsterdam, Elsevier
Barker, P. S. 1974. Hydrogen phosphide concentration gradients in wheat. Manitoba Entomologist 8:85-89.
Barker, P.S. 1974. A theoretical consideration of the behaviour of air-fumigant mixtures in stored grains in relation to the laws of gases. The Manitoba Entomologist, 8, 80-84.
Berck, B. 1975. Interstitial air movement in model grain silo. Pestic. Sci. 6:639-644.
Berck, B. 1975. Determination of air movement in stored grain as a factor in dynamic dispersion and distribution patterns of gaseous pesticides (fumigants). Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 13:527-533.
Berck, B., and J. Solomon. 1962. Wheat as a chromatographic column toward methyl bromide, ethylene dibromide, acrylonitrile, chloropicrin, and carbon tetrachloride in the vapor phase. J. Agric. Food Chem. 10:163-167.
Bibby, I. P., and S. T. Conyers. 1998. Numerical Simulations of Gas Exchange in Leaky Grain Silos, Using Measured Boundary Conditions. J. Stored Prod. Res. 34:217-229.
Boac, J.M.; Casada, M.E.; Lawrence, J.; Plumier, B.; Maier, D.E.; Ambrose, R.P.K. 2014. Modeling phosphine distribution in grain storage bunker. p. 256-263. In Proceedings of the 11th International Working Conference on Stored Product Protection.
Brown, W. B. 1937. Application of fumigants to ships and warehouses. v. distribution of ethylene oxide in barges containing dried fruit. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry.(Great Britain) 56:116T-122T.
Bond, E.J., Sellen. R.A., and Dumas, T. 1977. Control of insects with phosphine in open-ended bin spouts. Journal of Economic Entomology, 70, 22-25.
Casada, Mark; Siliveru, Kaliramesh; Arthur, Frank H.; Brabec, Daniel; Campbell, James F.; Maghirang, Ronaldo; Maier, Dirk E.; Conley, Taylor; Jones, Carol 2018. Phosphine distribution during fumigation of wheat in steel bins: extended abstract. p. 718-724. In Adler, C.S.; Opit, G.; Fürstenau, B.; Müller-Blenkle, C.; Kern, P.; Arthur, F.H.; Athanassiou, C.G.; Bartosik, R.; Campbell, J.; Carvalho, M.O.; Chayaprasert, W.; Fields, P.; Li, Z.; Maier, D.; Nayak, M.; Nukenine, E.; Obeng-Ofori, D.; Phillips, T.; Riudavets, J.; Throne, J.; Schöller, M.; Stejskal, V.; Talwana, H.; Timlick, B.; Trematerra, P. eds. Proceedings of the12th International Working Conference on Stored Product Protection (IWCSPP) in Berlin, Germany, October 7-11, 2018.
Chandra, S., B. P. Khare, and V. K. Sharma. 1975. Relative penetration power of some selected fumigants and their mixtures. Indian J. Agric. Res. 9:127-134.
Chayaprasert, W., D. E. Maier, B. Subramanyam, and M. Hartzer. 2012. Gas leakage and distribution characteristics of methyl bromide and sulfuryl fluoride during fumigations in a pilot flour mill. J. Stored Prod. Res. 50: 1-7
Cotton, R. T., G. B. Wagner, and H. D. Young. 1937. Heavier-than-air fumigants and their relation to methods of fumigation for insect control. National Grain Journal 2: 10, 12.
El Nahal, A. K. 1953. Fumigation of agricultural products. VI.-penetration and sorption of hydrogen cyanide in wheat fumigated at reduced pressures. J. Sci. Food Agric. 11:517-522.
El Nahal, A. K. 1954. FumigatioN of agricultural products. VII.-Penetration and sorption of ethylene oxide in wheat fumigated at reduced pressures. J. Sci. Food Agric. 5:205-208.
El Nahal, A. K. 1954. Fumigation of agricultural products. VIII. Penetration and sorption of methyl bromide in wheat fumigated at reduced pressures. J. Sci. Food Agric. 5:369-373.
Flinn, P., C. Reed, D. Hagstrum and T. Phillips. 2007. Seasonal and spatial changes in insect density in commercial elevator bins: implications for phosphine fumigation. International Miller 2006-2007: 36-40.
Gilby, A. R. 1983. Movement of halogenated fumigants through wheat. J. Stored Prod. Res. 19:199-202.
Jian F, Jayas DS 2016 Engineering considerations for creating uniform distribution of applied gas during controlled atmospheres and fumigation. Pp. 361–370. In: Navarro S, Jayas DS, Alagusundaram K, (Eds.) Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Controlled Atmosphere and Fumigation in Stored Products (CAF2016), CAF Permanent Committee Secretariat, Winnipeg, Canada
Kaloudis, E., Bantas, S., Athanassiou, C. G., Agrafioti, P., and Sotiroudas V. 2018. Modeling the distribution of phosphine in cylindrical grain silos with CFD methods for precision fumigation. p. 711-718. In: Adler C., S., Opit G., Furstenau B., Muller-Blenkle C., Kern P., Arthur F. H., Athanassiou C. G., Bartosik R., Campbell J., Carvalho M. O., Chayaprasert W., Fields P., Li Z., Maier D., Nayak M., Nukenine E., Obeng-Ofori D., Phillips T., Riudavets J., Throne J., Scholler M., Stejskal V., Talwana H., Timlick B. and Trematerra P. (eds.). Procedings of the 12th International Working Conference for Stored Product Protection. Julius Kuhn Archiv 463.
Kavadia, V. S. et al. 1986. Dispersal of fumigants in empty and sorghum filled mud kothi. Bulletin of Grain Technology 24:127-131.
Mian, L. S. and M. Shahid. 1976. Downward penetration of fumigants through a column of wheat grains. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 8: 65-68.
Majumder, S.K., K.S. Narasimhan and M. Muthu. 1963. Behavior of ethylene dibromide, methyl bromide, and their mixtures. I. In columns of grains and milled materials. Food Technol. 17:344-347.
Mathis, W. et al. 1961. Relationship of ventilation and dosage to the effectiveness of DDVP as a residual fumigant. Bull. World Health Organ. 24:646-649.
McClurkin, J.D.; Maier, D.E.; Ileleji, K.E. 2013. Half-life time of ozone as a function of air movement and conditions in a sealed container. J Stored Prod Res 55: 41–47.
Mendez, F., Maier, D.E., Mason, L.J., Woloshuk, C.P., 2003. Penetration of ozone into columns of stored grains and effects on chemical composition and processing performance. J. Stored Prod. Res. 39: 33-44.
Mian, L. S. et al. 1976. Downward penetration of fumigants through a column of wheat grains. Pak. J. Zool. 8: 65-68.
Nguyen.T. V. 1986. Modelling temperature and moisture changes resulting from natural convection in grain stores. In Champ, B. R. and Highley, E. ed. Preserving grain quality by aeration in-store drying, Proceedings of an international seminar, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 9-11 0ctober 1985. ACIAR Procceclings No. 15. 81-88.
Nguyen, T. V. 1987. Natural convection effects in stored grains – a simulation study. Drying Technol 5:541-560.
Paes, J. L. 2008. Difusao e sorcao do isotiocianato alilo e o seu efeito no controle de Sitophilus zeamais e na qualidade do milho. (Diffusion and sorption of allyl isothiocyanate and its effect on the control of Sitophilus zeamais and maize quality) Mestrado em Engenharia Agricola, Universidade Federal de Vicosa, Vicosa
Page, A. B. P., and O. F. Lubatti 1933. The application of fumigants to ships and warehouses. I. Distribution of ethylene oxide in empty warehouses. I. Soc. Chem. Ind. (Great Britain) 52: 309T-16T.
Page, A. B., and O. F. Lubatti. 1933. Application of fumigants to ships and warehouses. II. Distribution of hydrogen cyanide in empty warehouse. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry (Great Britain) 52:316T-323T.
Page, A. B. P., and O. F. Lubatti. 1933. The application of fumigants to ship and warehouses. III. Pendtration of hydrogen cyanide into bags of raw cacao stacked in piles of different sizes. J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 52:323-326.
Peng, W. K., C. C. Yang, and T. K. Lee. 1999. Horizontal diffusion of phosphine through grain Chinese J. Entomol. 19:201-207.
Peng, W.K.;Yang, C.C.; Lee, T.K.; Cheng, H.Y. 1999. Vertical penetration and distribution of phosphine in corn and sorghum stored in steel silos. Chinese Journal of Entomology, 19(3): 279-291.
Qi, Z. y., Y. d. Yao, Y. x. Li, B. y. Yuan and Y. l. Leng. 2009. Phosphine distribution rules in grain bulks during fumigation in squat silo. Grain Storage 38: 29-32.
Rangaswamy, J. R., and N. Gunasekaran. 1993. Free phosphine in the void space of food commodities during phosphine fumigation. J. Food Sci. Technol. 26:447-449.
Reed, C. and H. Pan. 2000. Loss of phosphine from unsealed bins of wheat at six combinations of grain temperature and grain moisture content. J. Stored Prod. Res. 36: 263-279.
Sinha, A. K., G. Nath, and B. P. Srivastava. 1979. Studies on the behaviour of phosphine gas in stored maize. Bulletin of grain technology 17: 48-54.
Smith, E. A., and D. S. Jayas. 2001. Modeling the movement of fumigant gas within grain beds. American Society of Agricultural Engineers 44:661-667.
Steponavicius, D., A. Steponavicienė, A. Raila, E. Zvicevicius, and A. Kemzuraitė. 2012. Investigation on ozone penetration along grain mound height. Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment 10(1): 742-747.
Stevenson, J. H. 1959. Distribution of methyl bromide in barges containing dried fruit. J. Sci. Food Agric. 10:86-89.
Strand, A. L. 1927. Comparison of the toxicity and the diffusion in a column of grain, of chloropicrin, carbon disulphide, and carbon tetrachloride. Minnesota Agric. Exp. Sta. Techn. Bull. 49.
Williams, Scott B.; Murdock, Larry L.; Kharel, Kabita; Baributsa, Dieudonne. 2016. Grain size and grain depth restrict oxygen movement in leaky hermetic containers and contribute to protective effect. J. Stored Prod. Res. 69: 65-71.
Zaiton, Mat Isa. 2014. Mathematical modelling of fumigant transport in stored grain. Doctor of Philosophy in the Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology
Recirculation
Anonymous. 1955. Use of methyl bromide for the fumigation of grain by forced recirculation. Dow Chemical Company
Anonymous. 1957. A portable recirculation system for use in freightcar loads of bulk products. USDA–AMS-MRD
Anonymous. 1963. A portable recirculation system for fumigating bulk products in freight cars. USDA Marketing Bulletin 24
Boland, F. B. 1981. Recirculation fumigation at terminals and country storages (Section 5), pp. 15-18. In P. Williams and T. G. Amos (eds.), Proceedings first Australian stored grain pest control conference, 18-22 May 1981, Melbourne, Australia. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO)
Boles, H. P. et al. 1957. A test fumigation of bulk milo with methyl bromide using the forced recirculation method. USDA Special Report C-274
Brook, T. S., and L. M. Redlinger. 1954. Methyl bromide to control insects in rough rice. Texas A & M University Progress Report 1683.
Brown, W. B., and H. K. Heseltine. 1949. Fumigation of grain in silo bins, the provision of circulating systems. Milling 112: 229-233. March.
Cook, J. S. 1984. Use of controlled air to increase the effectiveness of fumigation of stationary grain storages. In Ripp, B.E., Ed. Controlled Atmosphere and Fumigation in Grain Storages, 11-22 Apr 1983, Perth, Australia. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Cook, J.S. 1980. Low air flow fumigation method. U.S. Patent No. 4, 200, 657.
Cotton, R. T. and H. H. Walkden. 1951. Fumigation of large bulks of sorghum grain. Down to Earth 7 (1): 6-7.
Glass, E. H. 1944. Recirculation in atmospheric fumigation of commodities wtih nitriles. J. Econ. Entomol. 37(3): 388-391.
Hardin, J. A., C. L. Jones, E. L. Bonjour, R. T. Noyes, R. L. Beeby, D. A. Eltiste, and S. Decker. 2010. Ozone fumigation of stored grain; closed-loop recirculation and the rate of ozone consumption. J. Stored Prod. Res. 46:149-154.
Howe, R. G. e. a. 1958. Forced recirculation control of stored-grain insects. Down to Earth 14:6-9.
Jones, C., J. Hardin and E. Bonjour. 2011. Design of closed-loop fumigation systems for grain storage structures. Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheet BAE-1111-8. (available at http://osufacts.okstate.edu)
Kelly, M. 1987. A recirculatory fumigation technique for stacked commodities, pp. 267. In T. J. Lawson (ed.), Stored Products Pest Control, 25-27 March, 1987, University of Reading.
Kenkel, P.; Noyes, R.; Cuperus, G.; Criswell, J. 1993. Costs and benefits of installing closed loop fumigation systems in commercial elevators. OSU Fact Sheet 219
Kenkel, P. and R. T. Noyes. 1993. Costs and benefits of installing closed loop funugation systems in commercial elevators, OSUfact sheet No. 219, Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, July, 1993, 4p.
Lindgren, D., and L. Vincent. 1959. Sorption of single-component and multiple-component fumigants by whole-kernel corn under recirculation, and correlated mortality of stored-product insects. J. Econ. Entomol. 52:1091-1096.
Lindgren, D., and L. Vincent. 1960. The relation of moisture content and temperature of stored grain to the effectiveness of grain fumigants under forced circulation. J. Econ. Entomol. 53: 1071-1077.
Lindgren, D. L. and L. E. Vincent. 1962. Fumigation of food commodities for insect control. p. 85-152. In R. L. Metcalf [ed.] Advances in Pest Control Research Volume 5, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Longde, Y., Y. Zili, J. Tianke, Q. Zhanggui, Y. Longde, D. Gang, W. Xiuqong, and Y. Xiaoping. 2003. Efficacy against resistant strains of insects of recirculated phosphine fumigation of paddy rice held under PVC sheeting, pp. 841-845. In P. F. Credland, D. M. Armitage, C. H. Bell, P. M. Cogan and E. Highley (eds.), Advances in Stored Product Protection. Proceedings of the 8th International Working Conference on Stored Product Protection, 22.-26 July 2002, York, United Kingdom.
Luzaich, G. 1991. Recirculation fumigation, pp. 119. In Anonymous Proceedings of the III National Stored Grain Pest Management Training Conference, Oct 20-21, 1990, Kansas City, Missouri. Minnesota Extension Service, University of Minnesota, .
Meyer, I. K., and W. Gliksman. 1932. Ein neues technisches Verfahren zur Bekampfung von Speicherschadlingen (A new technical procedure to combat of storage pest. Nachrichten uber Schadlingsbekampfung 7:110-113.
Millard, R. 1962. Bugs cause “hot box” by excessive activity, Recirculation triumphs, warm air currents develop upwards carrying moisture of insects’ respiration. Grain Terminals and Processing Plants
Moffet, E.C. 1927 Fumigating process U.S. Patent No. 1,913,186.
Monro, H. A. 1956. History of the use of the recirculation method for applying fumigants in grain storage. Down to Earth 11:19-21.
Navarro, S., E. G. Jay, and J. G. Leesch. 1986. Recirculation rate requirements for adequate distribution of carbon dioxide in grain bins. American Society of Agricultural Engineers.Transactions 29:1348-1354.
Noyes, R. T., Kenkel, P., Criswell, J. T., and Cuperus, G. W. 1996. Manifolding and sealing installation methods for manifolded phosphine recirculation systems in multiple concrete silos in US elevators. p. 359 In Proceedings of the International Conference on Controlled Atmosphere and Fumigation in Stored Products, Cyprus.
Noyes, R. T., P. Kenkel, and G. Tate. 1995. Closed Loop Fumigation Systems, pp. 153-161. In V. Krischik, G. Cuperus and D. Galliart (eds.), Stored Product Management, vol. E912. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma.
Noyes, R. T., and Kenkel, P. 1994. Closed loop fumigation systems in the south-western
United States. Pages 335-341 in: Proc. 6th International Working Conference on Stored-Product Protection. (Canberra, Australia.) E. Highley, E. J. Wright, H. J. Banks, and B. R. Champ, Eds. CAB International, Wallingford, U.K.
Noyes, R., Navarro, S. and Armitage, D. 2002. Supplemental Aeration Systems. In The Mechanics and Physics of Modern Grain Aeration Management, 413-488 (Eds S. Navarro and R. Noyes). Boca Raton, Fl: CRC Press.
Noyes, R.T., T.W. Phillips, G.W. Cuperus, and E.L. Bonjour. 1999. Advances in recirculation fumigation technology in the U.S.A. pp. 554-561. In: Zuxun, J., L. Quan, L. Yongsheng, T. Xianchang, and G. Langhua, Eds. Proceedings of the 7th International Working Conference on Stored-Product Protection. Beijing, China. 14-19 October 1998. Sichuan Publishing House of Science and Technology, Chengdu, Sichuan, People’s Republic of China.
Phillips, G. L. 1952. Methyl bromide fumigation of cottonseed in freight cars for the destruction of pink bollworm. USDA-ARA-BEPQ-E-838
Phillips, G. L. 1955. Grain fumigation. Part I. Agric. Chem. 10:55-56, 111-121.
Phillips, G. L. 1955. Grain fumigation. Part II. Agric. Chem. 10:41-43, 133, 125.
Phillips, G. L. 1956. Use of the aeration system to distrubute methyl bromide in the fumigation of wheat stored in silo-type elevator tanks by the forced distribution method. USDA-AMS-MRD-BSB-A-161.
Phillips, G. L. 1957. Experiments on distributing methyl bromide in bulk grains with aeration systems. USDA, AMS-150
Phillips, G. L. 1957. Experiments on distributing liquid fumigants in bulk grains with aeration systems. USDA, AMS-151
Phillips, G. L. 1957. Experiments on distributing HCN in bulk grain with aeration system. USDA-AMS-152
Phillips, G. L. and W. G. Bodenstein. 1948. A Successful Large-Scale Experiment in Methyl Bromide Fumigation of Bulk Cottonseed for Pink Bollworm Control. J. Econ. Entomol. 41(5): 804-805
Phillips, G. L., and R. Latta. 1953. Value of forced circulation in the fumigation of bulk commodities in freight cars. Down to Earth 8:13-15.
Phillips, G. L., W. K. Whitney, C. L. Storey, and H. H. Walkden. 1959. Bulk cocoa bean fumigation for tobacco moth: gravity penetration vs. recirculation. Pest Control 27:39-42, 44.
Pustet, A. 1932. Ein Versuch zur Begasung von Speicherschadlingen in Getreidesilo mit Wechselluftung (An attempt to fumigate storage pests in grain silo with exchange ventilation). Nachrichten uber Schadlingsbekampfung 7:136-145. R. A. E. A 26: 120.
Redlinger, L. M. 1957. Studies on fumigating rice in flat storage by the forced circulation method. Rice J. 60:18-23.
Storey, C. L. 1960. What are the prerequisites to any successful fumigation in the forced vs. gravity way? Infestation problems multiply: excessively expenses for the uninformed. Grain and Feed Journals 117: 49-50.
Storey, C. L. 1967. Comparative study of methods of distributing methyl bromide in flat storages of wheat: gravity-penetration, single pass, and closed recirculation. USDA, ARS-MRR-794 .
Storey, C. L. 1971. Distribution of grain fumigants in silo-type elevator tanks by aeration systems. USDA Marketing Research Report 915
Storey, C. L. 1971. Three methods for distributing methyl bromide in farm-type bins of wheat and corn. USDA
Storey, C. L. 1971. Effect of temperature and commodity on distribution of CC14-CS2 (80:20) and EDC-CC14 (75:25) applied by gravity penetration and closed recirculation. J. Econ. Entomol. 64:227-230.
Thomas, D. 1979. Fumigation of horizontal and vertical storages with methyl bromide using recirculatory techniques. In Evans, D.E., Ed. Australian contributions to the symposium on the protection of grain against insect damage during storage, Moscow, U.S.S.R. July. 1978. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO)
Whitney, W. K. and E. E. Kenaga. 1960. Distribution and sorption of liquid fumigants applied to wheat by recirculation. J. Econ. Entomol. 53:259-261.
Wilson, A. D. 1980. Pilot commercial treatment of bulk wheat with CO2 for insect control; the need for gas recirculation. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 20:618-624.
Wilson, A. D. et al. 1984. Use in recirculation of carbon dioxide in welded steel bins in Victoria. In Ripp, B.E., Ed. Controlled Atmosphere and Fumigation in Grain Storages, 11-22 Apr 1983, Perth, Australia. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Carrier Solvent
Banks, H. J. et al. 1987. Bromine-containing residues resulting from fumigation of grain with methyl bromide-carbon dioxide mixtures. J. Stored Prod. Res. 23:105-113.
Bond, E. J., and C. T. Buckland. 1978. Control of insects with fumigants at low temperatures: toxicity of fumigants in atmospheres of carbon dioxide. J. Econ. Entomol. 71:307-309.
Cotton, R. T. 1930. Carbon dioxide as an aid in the fumigation of certain highly adsorbtive commodities. J. Econ. Entomol. 23: 231-233.
Cotton, R. T., and H. A. Young. 1929. Use of carbon dioxide to increase the insecticidal efficacy of fumigants. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 31: 97-102.
Cotton, R. T. and Harry D. Young. 1935. Fumigants. U. S. Patent No. 2, 024, 027
Dennis, N. M., and N. M. Whitney. 1955. Effect of varying the volatilization of methyl bromide by combinations with various solvents on its distribution in bulk grain fumigation. USDA-AMS-73.
Dumas, T. and E. J. Bond. 1977. Penetration, sorption, and desorption of fumigant in the treatment of food materials with a methyl bromide-acrylonitrile mixture. J. Agric. Food Chem. 25:677-680.
Jones, R. M. 1938. Toxicity of fumigant-CO, mixtures to the red flour beetle. J. Econ Entomol. 31, 298-309.
Kashi, K., and E. Bond. 1975. Toxic Action of Phosphine – Role of Carbon-Dioxide on Toxicity of Phosphine to Sitophilus-Granarius (L) and Tribolium confusum Duval. J. Stored Prod. Res. 11: 9-15.
Leesch, J. G. 1991. Effect of low concentrations of carbon dioxide on the penetration of phosphine through wheat., pp. 859-865. In F. Fluerat-Lessard and P. Ducom eds., 5th International Working Conference on Stored-Product Protection. Bordeaux, France. September 9-14, 1990, Bordeaux, France. Imprimerie du Medoc, Bordeaux-Blanquefort, France.
Leesch, J. G. 1992. Carbon dioxide on the penetration and distribution of phosphine through wheat. J. Econ. Entomol. 85: 156-161.
Navarro, S. 1986. Gaseous fumigant mixtures, with special reference to mixtures of carbon dioxide with phosphine or methyl bromide. p. 150-158. In Anonymous GASGA Seminar on fumigation in developing countries, 18-21 MAR 1986, Slough, United Kingdom.
Storey, C. L. 1971. Distribution of chloropicrin used alone or mixed wtih 80:20 to fumigate wheat and sorghum. USDA
Viljoen, J. H. et al. 1981. Fumigation trials with a mixture of methyl bromide and carbon dioxide in larger type silo bins storage pests. Phytophylactica Plantbeskermingswetenskappe en mikrobiologie (Plant protection sciences and microbiologie) 13: 127-137.
Wainman, H. E. et al. 1983. Use of a methyl bromide/carbon dioxide mixture as a space fumigant. International Pest Control 25: 174-175.
Williams, P. et al. 1984. Commercial potential of methyl bromide and carbon dioxide mixtures for disinfesting grain. In Ripp, B.E. Ed. Controlled Atmosphere and Fumigation in Grain Storages, 11-22 Apr 1983, Perth, Australia. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Perforated Tubing
Leesch, J. G., R. Davis, J. L. Zettler, D. R. Sukkestad, J. M. Zehner, and L. M. Redlinger. 1986. Use of perforated tubing to distribute phosphine during the in-transit fumigation of wheat. J. Econ. Entomol. 79: 1583-1589.
Zettler, J. L., H. B. Gillenwater, L. M. Redlinger, J. G. Leesch, R. Davis, L. L. McDonald, and J. M. Zehner. 1984. Efficacy of perforated tubing in assisting phosphine distribution for in-transit fumigation of export corn. J. Econ. Entomol. 77:675-679.
Trickle Method
Anderson, Ian. 1989. Pumps deliver a fatal blow to grain pests. New Scientist 24 June
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storedproductinsects 