Combine harvesting can result in damage to 20–50% of wheat kernels (Hagstrum and Subramanyam 2006). Harvesting process is the primary source of mechanical damage (Chen et al. 2020, Hanna et al. 2013). Cylinder speed has the largest influence and concave clearance is less significant. At a higher feed rate, plant material inside the machine is denser and cushions the grain from impacts. Setting the combine to minimize kernel damage can be an important part of a stored-product insect pest management program.
Dropping grain from heights greater than 40 ft caused more breakage than any other handling method tested (Fiscus et al. 1971, Kaufmann 1974). The grain stream from an 8-in. diameter orifice incurred more breakage than the grain stream from a 12-in. diameter orifice. Conveying load, conveying speed, inclination angle, and clearance between the screw and the casing of screw conveyor can influence grain damage (Chen et al. 2020). Pierce and Hanna (1985) investigated cumulative increase in maize damage from on-farm handling processes, including harvesting, drying, and conveying. Harvesting accounted for 60% of the seed coat damage, while conveying accounted for 65% of the broken maize and fine material. Drying and cooling processes did not directly increase the external damage but contributed to 40% of the breakage susceptibility.
To reduce the damage caused by free-falling and spouting, cushion box, spout retarder, and retro-air retarder (Stephens and Foster 1977, McKenzie and Foster 1979) and let down ladder by (Shahbazi and Shahbazi 2022). have been shown to reduce the velocity of the grain stream but only reduced handling damage a little, reduced throughput and because of heating some can only be used for a short time (Martin and Foster 1992).
Although stored-product insects are immersed in food, some species may need to feed on fine material created by insect feeding or grain breakage, or search for damaged kernels (Flinn et al. 1992) so reducing gain damage can reduce insect problems and otherwise improve market value. Listed below are another 44 papers not included or more recent than those cited in the 1992 review. Fifteen of these were published prior to 1991 and 17 since 2011. These papers add another 12 insect species to those discussed in the 1992 review.
Ajayi, F. A., E. Peter, and Y. Amoo. 2018. Effect of Grain Breakage and Relative Humidity on The Development of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens)(Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae) Infesting Stored Maize in Lafia, Nigeria. PAT, Publication of Nasarawa State University, Keffi 14(2): 78-86.
Ali, Suliman A. I., Mory Mandiana Diakite, Saqib Ali, and Man-Qun Wang. 2015. The Influence of Grain Cracked on Reproduction of Sitophilus granarius (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on Different Types of Host Grains. Kasmera 43(1): 67–92.
Arthur, Frank H., Brook A. Hale, Laura A. Starkus, Alison R. Gerken, James F. Campbell, and Tanja McKay. 2019. Development of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst)(Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) on rice milling components and by-products: Effects of diet and temperature.” Journal of Stored Products Research 80: 85-92.
Atanasov, C. 1973. “Influence of the Percentages of Mechanically Damaged Sunflower Seeds on the Population Density of the Red Flour Beetle (Tribolium castaneum Herbst) under Storage Conditions. [In Bulgarian, English Summ.]. Rastenievud. Nauki 10: 137–41.
Athanassiou, Christos G., George P. Opit, and James E. Throne. 2010. Influence of Commodity Type, Percentage of Cracked Kernels, and Wheat Class on Population Growth of Stored-Product Psocids (Psocoptera: Liposcelidae).” Journal of Economic Entomology 103(3): 985–90.
Atmosudirdjo, Oetoyo. Susceptibility of rough, brown, milled, and broken rice kernels in different environments to six species of stored-product insects. PhD diss., Kansas State University, 1976.
Ayertey, J. N. 1982. Development of Sitotroga cerealella on whole, cracked or ground maize. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 31(2‐3): 165-169.
Beckett, SJ and Evans, DE 1994 The demography of Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) (Coleoptera: Silvanidae) on kibbled wheat. Journal of Stored Products Research 30: 121–137.
Chakraborty, Debjyoti, T Madhumathi, SVS Gopalaswamy and V Prasanna Kumari 2020. Growth, development and progeny production of Rusty grain beetle, Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) on broken, flour and whole maize. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies 8(4): 151-154. Kumari, Prasanna.
Cline LD. 1991. Progeny production and adult longevity of Cryptolestes pusillus (Coleoptera: Cucujidae) on broken and whole corn at selected humidities. Journal of Economic Entomology 84: 120-125.
Davies, R. G. 1949. The biology of Laemophloeus minutus Oliv. (Col. Cucujidae). Bulletin of Entomological Research 40(1): 63–82. (Cryptolestes pusillus)
Dendy, A. 1918. Experiments with two secondary grain pests, showing their inability to attack sound wheat. Reports of the Grains Pests (War) Committee, Royal Society 3: 15–16.
Fiscus, D. E., Foster, G. H., and Kaufman, H. H. 1971. Physical damage of grain caused by various handling techniques. Trans. ASAE, 14(3): 480-485.
Flinn, P. W., W. H. McGaughey, and W. E. Burkholder. 1992. Effects of Fine Material on Insect Infestation: A Review. In Fine Material in Grain, North Central Regional Research Publication 332, edited by R. Stroshine, p. 24–30. The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH: Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center.
Foster, G. H., and Holman, L. E. 1973. Grain breakage caused by commercial handling methods. Marketing Research Report No. 968. Washington, DC: USDA-ARS.
Gvozdenac, Sonja M., Dejan M. Prvulović, Mirjana N. Radovanović, Jelena S. Ovuka, Vladimir J. Mikli, Jelena M. Acanski, Snezana T. Tanaskovi, and Filip N. Vukajlović. 2018. Life History of Plodia Interpunctella Hübner on Sunflower Seeds: Effects of Seed Qualitative Traits and the Initial Seed Damage. Journal of Stored Products Research 79: 89–97.
Gvozdenac, Sonja, Snežana Tanasković, Jelena Ovuka, Vladimir Miklič, Mladen Tatić, Dejan Prvulović, and Filip Vukajlović. 2018. Plodia Interpunctella Hübner – Primary or Secondary Pest of Sunflower Seeds in Serbia. IOBC-WPRS Bulletin 130: 31.
Hagstrum, D. W. and Bh. Subramanyam. 2006. Fundamentals of Stored Product Entomology, AACC International, St. Paul, Minnesota.
Hanna, H. Mark and Graeme R. Quick 2013. Chapter 6 Grain Harvesting Machinery. p. 103- 121. In Handbook of Farm, Dairy and Food Machinery Engineering, Elsevier Inc.
Hettiarachchi, J. M., D. M. S. K. Dissanayaka, and L. K. W. Wijayaratne. 2020. Adult Emergence of Sitophilus oryzae (L.)(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Stored Rice Varieties and Pulses with Broken Grains. Journal of Food and Agriculture 13(2): 37-46.
Hettiarachchi, J. M., D. M. S. K. Dissanayaka, and L. K. W. Wijayaratne. 2020. Influence of Grain Fractions on the Progeny Adult Emergence of the Lesser Grain Borer, Rhyzopertha Dominica (F.)(Coleoptera: Bostrychidae) in Stored Rice Varieties and Pulses. Journal of Science-FAS-SEUSL 1(2): 18–26.
Jagadiswaran, B.; Jayas, D.S. and Jian, F. 2024. Population dynamics of Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in wheat and in wheat mixed with cracked wheat held in different types of containers. J. Econ. Entomol. 117: 323–332
Kaliyan, Nalladurai, Mario A. Carrillo, R. Vance Morey, William F. Wilcke, and Colleen A. Cannon. 2005. Indian meal moth survivability in stored corn with different levels of broken kernels. The Great Lakes Entomologist 38(3 & 4): 6.
Kaufmann, H. H. 1974. How To Minimize Breakage Of Grain In Handling. Grain Age 15(9): 4–6.
Kavallieratos, Nickolas G., Christos G. Athanassiou, Frank H. Arthur, and James E. Throne. 2012. Lesser Grain Borers, Rhyzopertha dominica, Select Rough Rice Kernels with Cracked Hulls for Reproduction. Journal of Insect Science 12, 38
Khare, BP, RP Shukla, and B. Singh. 1979. Development of Stored-Grain Insects in Mechanically Damaged Wheat-Grain. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 49(8): 609–612.
Kordan, Bożena, and Beata Gabrys. 2013 Effect of barley and buckwheat grain processing on the development and feeding of the confused flour beetle. Journal of Plant Protection Research 53(1): 96-102
Lhaloui, S., DW Hagstrum, DL Keith, TO Holtzer, and HJ Ball. 1988. Combined Influence of Temperature and Moisture on Red Flour Beetle (Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae) Reproduction on Whole Grain Wheat. Journal of Economic Entomology 81(2): 488–489.
Li, L and Arbogast, RT (1991) The effect of grain breakage on fecundity, development, survival, and population increase in maize of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Journal of Stored Product Research 27: 87–94.
Locatelli, DP, Limonta, L and Stampini, M 2008. Effect of particle size of soft wheat flour on the development of Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Journal of Stored Products Research 44: 269–272.
Locatelli, DP, Savoldelli, S, Girgenti, P, Lucchini, GA and Limonta, L 2017 Can environmental dust from silo area allow the development of stored product insects? Journal of Stored Product Research 71: 41–46.
Martin, Charles R. and George H. Foster 1992. Reducing or Controlling Damage to Grain from Handling: A Review. p. 31-37. In Stroshine, R. L. ed. Fine material in grain. Wooster, OH: Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center. No. 332, OARDC Special Circular 141
McGaughey, W. H. 1974. Insect development in milled rice: effects of variety, degree of milling, parboiling and broken kernels. Journal of Stored Products Research 10(2): 81-86.
McKenzie, B.A. and G.H. Foster. 1979. Grain Decelerators for Reducing Grain Breakage. ASAE Paper 85-6014. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI 49085. 18p.
McKenzie, B.A. 1985. Grain Damage in Handling – An Overview. ASAE Paper 85-3510. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI 49085. l0 p.
Nika, Erifili P., Nickolas G. Kavallieratos, and Chrisovalantis Malesios. 2022. Dangerous liaisons of three key secondary stored-product pests in cracked maize. Journal of Stored Products Research 99, 102037.
Pierce, R. O., K. L. Salter, and D. Jones. 1991. On-farm broken corn levels. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 7(6): 741-745.
Pierce, R. O., and Hanna, M. A. 1985. Corn kernel damage during on-farm handling. Transactions of American Society of Agricultural Engineering28(1): 239-241, 245.
Pike, Vanessa. 1994. Impact of milling degree on Liposcelis paetus population growth rate and assessment of milled rice weight loss due to infestation. Crop Protection 13(6): 425-428.
Predojević, Dragana Z., Filip N. Vukajlović, Snežana T. Tanasković, Sonja M. Gvozdenac, and Snežana B. Pešić. 2017. Influence of maize kernel state and type on life history of Plodia interpunctella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Journal of Stored Products Research 72: 121-127.
Reddy, D. B. 1950. Influence of sound kernels compared with halved kernels of wheat upon oviposition of the rice weevil. Journal of Economic Entomology 43: 390–391.
Schoonhoven, A. V., Mills, R. B. and Horber, E. 1974. Development of Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky, in maize kernels and pellets made from maize kernel fractions. Journal of Stored Products Research, 10: 73-80.
Selvarajah, N. 1987. Effect of particle size of food on the biology of two species of Cryptolestes. Vingnanam Journal of Science 2(1/2): 50–57. Cryptolestes turcicus, Cryptolestes ferrugineus
Selvarajah, Navamany 1961. Some Aspects of the Biology of Two Species of Cryptolestes, with Special Reference to the Effect of Particle Size of Food. MS thesis, University of London, Royal Holloway College, United Kingdom.
Shah, J. A., T. Vendl, R. Aulicky, and V. Stejskal. 2021. Frass produced by the primary pest Rhyzopertha dominica supports the population growth of the secondary stored product pests Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Tribolium castaneum, and T. confusum. Bulletin of Entomological Research 111(2): 153-159.
Shahbazi, Reza and Feizollah Shahbazi 2022. Effects of cushion box and closed let-down ladder usage on mechanical damage during corn kernel handling: Cracking. J. Stored Prod. Res. 99, 102006
Shafique, M, Ahmad, M and Chaudry, MA 2006. Feeding preference and development of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst.) in wheat products. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 38, 27–31.
Singh, RN, and SS Krishna. 1985. Effect of Particle-Size of Adult Food on the Reproductive Capacity of Tribolium castaneum (Hbst) (Col, Tenebrionidae). Anzeiger Fur Schadlingskunde Pflanzenschutz Umweltschutz 58(1): 17–18.
Skourti, A, Kavallieratos, NG and Papanikolaou, NE 2020. Suitability of semolina, cracked wheat and cracked maize as feeding commodities for Tribolium castaneum (Herbst; Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Insects 11, 99
Stephens, L. E., and Foster, G. H. 1977. Reducing damage to corn handled through gravity spouts. Trans. ASAE, 20(2), 367-371.
Throne, JE. 1991. Rusty Grain Beetle (Coleoptera, Cucujidae) Oviposition in Cracked and Whole Corn. Journal of Entomological Science 26 (1): 183–87.
Thorne, JE. 1992. Survival of Immature Rusty Grain Beetles (Coleoptera, Cucujidae) on Various Particle Sizes of Cracked Corn. Journal of Entomological Science 27(1): 65–70.
Throne, James E. 1993. Ability of older Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Cucujidae) larvae to infest whole corn and long-term population growth on whole corn. Journal of Entomological Science 28(2): 175-181.
Vukajlović, Filip N., Dragana Predojević Z., Selena D. Milošević, Dubravka R. Radulović, and Snežana B. Pešić. 2017. Survival Rate of Plodia interpunctella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae): On Different States of Wheat and Rye Kernels Previously Infested by Beetle Pests. Kragujevac Journal of Science 39: 201–8.
Williams, JO, and RB Mills. 1980. Influence of Mechanical Damage and Repeated Infestation of Sorghum on Its Resistance to Sitophilus oryzae (L) (Coleoptera, Curculionidae). Journal of Stored Products Research 16(2): 51–53.
Wongo, Lawrence E., and John R. Pedersen 1989. Effect of Sorghum Sprouting on Adult Progeny Production of Stored-Grain Insects and Larval Degermination of Kernels. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 62(3): 335-341. (Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Sitophilus oryzae, Tribolium castaneum)
Wongo, LE, and JR Pedersen. 1990. Effect of Threshing Different Sorghum Cultivars on Sitotroga cerealella (Oliv) and Sitophilus oryzae (L) (Lepidoptera, Gelechiidae and Coleoptera, Curculionidae). Journal of Stored Products Research 26 (2): 89–96.
storedproductinsects 