Availability of food and suitability of temperatures can limit survival during winter. Many species diapause (Bell 1994). Insects in diapause characteristically feed very little or not at all and are largely or totally dependent on energy reserves sequestered prior to the entry into diapause (Hahn and Denlinger 2007). Fats are the dominant reserve, but non-fat reserves are also important. Metabolic depression and the low temperatures of winter can facilitate economic utilization of these reserves over many months. Trogoderma spp. are exceptions, periodically feeding and molting (Burges, 1959, Beck, 1971). Others survive in heated facilities (Bezant 1979, Halstead 1975) or as results of heating in bulk commodities due to insect or fungal infestation (Mani et al. 2001, Sinha 1961, Sinha and Wallace 1965, 1966, Wallace and Sinha 1962). Some have developed cold tolerance (Fields 1992, Howe 1965, Solomon 1955), have adapted to alternate food, are capable of surviving on food residues or are capable of surviving without feeding, particularly at cooler temperatures. Below are some annotated references for winter ecology of 24 insect species (59 papers) and other supporting references (60 papers).
Beck, S. D. 1971. Growth and retrogression in larvae of Trogoderma glabrum. (Coleoptera: Dermestidae). 1. Characteristics under feeding and starvation conditions. Ann. ent. Soc. Amer. 64, 149-155.
Bell, CH. 1994. A Review of Diapause in Stored-Product Insects. Journal of Stored Products Research 30 (2): 99–120.
Burges, H. D. 1960. Studies on the dermestid beetle Trogoderma grunariumEverts–IV. Feeding, growth and respiration with particular reference to diapause larvae. J. Insect Physiol. 5: 317-334.
Fields, P. G. 1992. The control of stored-product insects and mites with extreme temperatures. J. Stored Prod. Res. 28: 89-118.
Hahn, D. A., and Denlinger, D. L. 2007. Meeting the energetic demands of insect diapause: nutrient storage and utilization. Journal of Insect Physiology 53: 760-773.
Halstead, D. G. 1975. Changes in the Status of Insect Pests in Storage and Domestic Habitats. p. 142–153. In Proceedings of the 1st International Working Conference on Stored-Product Entomology edited by E. U. Brady, J. H. Brower, P. E. Hunter, E. G. Jay, P. T. M. Lum, H. O. Lund, M. A. Mullen, and R. Davis, U.S. Department OF Agriculture.
Howe, R. W. 1965. A summary of estimates of optimal and minimal conditions for population increase of some stored products insects. J. Stored Prod. Res. 1: 177-184.
Mani, S., W.E. Muir, D.S. Jayas, and N.D.G. White. 2001. Computer Modelling of Insect-Induced Hot Spots in Stored Wheat. Can. Biosyst. Eng. 43: 4–7.
Sinha, R. N. 1961. Insects And Mites Associated With Hot Spots in Farm Stored Grain. Canadian Entomologist 93(8): 609–621.
Sinha, R. N. and H. A. H. Wallace. 1966. Ecology Of Insect-Induced Hot Spots in Stored Grain In Western Canada. Researches on Population Ecology 8(2): 107–132.
Sinha, R. N. and H. A. H. Wallace. 1965. Ecology of a Fungus-Induced Hot Spot in Stored Grain. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 45(1): 48–59.
Solomon, M. E., and Betty E. Adamson. 1955. The powers of survival of storage and domestic pests under winter conditions in Britain. Bulletin of entomological research 46(2): 311-355.
Wallace, H. A., and R. N. Sinha. 1962. Fungi Associated with Hot Spots in Farm Stored Grain. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 42: 130–141.
Acanthoscelides obtectus
Franssen, C.J.H. 1962. Levenswijze en bestrijding van de bonekever (Acanthoscelides obtectus) (Lifestyle and control of the bean beetle (Acanthoscelides obtectus)); with a summary, biology and control of the bean weevil (Acanthoscelides obtectus Say). Institute for Plant Pathology Research in Wageningen Publication 280, 88 p. Acanthoscelides obtectus failed to successfully overwinter outdoors in the Netherlands.
Hervet, Vincent A.D., Paul G. Fields, Kimberly D. Hamilton, Mohammad Nadimi, and Jitendra Paliwal. 2023. Cold Tolerance of Acanthoscelides obtectus, the Bean Weevil: Effects of Cold Acclimation, Life Stage and Strain. J. Stored Prod. Res. 104, 102169. Acanthoscelides obtectus may be able to withstand cold temperatures and overwinter in Ontario, Canada.
Vasilev, I. 1935 Acanthoscelides obtectus under field conditions in Abkhazia. Plant. Prot. 1935 fase. Leningrad (1935): 124-130. Hibernation rarely takes place in the field.
Vuts, József, Stephen J. Powers, Eudri Venter, and Árpád Szentesi. 2024. A semiochemical view of the ecology of the seed beetle Acanthoscelides obtectus Say (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae, Bruchinae). Annals of Applied Biology 184(1): 19-36. In temperate regions, it can only occasionally overwinter in the field.
Zachariae, Gerhard. 1958. Das Verhalten Des Speisebohnenkäfers Acanthoscelides obtectus Say (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) Im Freien in Norddeutschland. (The Behavior of the Edible Bean Beetle Acanthoscelides obtectus Say (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) Outdoors in Northern Germany). Zeitschrift Für Angewandte Entomologie 4(4): 345–365.
Zachariae, G. 1959. Kann Sich Der Speisebohnenkäfer Acanthoscelides obtectus Say Als Freilandschädling in Norddeutschland Einbürgern? (Coleoptera, Bruchidae). (Can the Edible Bean Beetle Acanthoscelides obtectus Say Become Naturalized as Outdoor Pest in Northern Germany?(Coleoptera, Bruchidae)). Z. Angew. Ent. 45: 225–67. Acanthoscelides obtectus was unable to overwinter outdoors in Germany and pests multiplied in warm storage during the winter months. Field infestations resulted from the sowing of infested beans and from adults flying from nearby fields in the summer.
Zacher, F. 1950. Ausbreitung Des Speisebohnenkafer (Acanthoscelides obtectus Say) in Deutschland. (Spread of Edible Bean Beetle (Acanthoscelides obtectus Say) in Germany). Nachrichtenblatt Des Deutschen Pflanzenschutzdienstes 2: 121. It has not yet been determined whether the edible bean beetle can overwinter outdoors in Switzerland.
Amyelois transitella
Johnson, J. A. 2007. Survival of Indianmeal moth and navel orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) at low temperatures. Journal of economic entomology 100(4): 1482-1488.
Kuenen, L. P. S., and J. P. Siegel. 2010. Protracted Emergence of Overwintering Amyelois transitella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) From Pistachios and Almonds in California. Environmental Entomology 39(4): 1059–1067. Emergence is protracted and can extend through early June due to the wide range of larval instars that overwinter on a variety of variable quality hosts.
Tebbets, J. S., C. E. Curtis, and R. D. Fries 1978. Mortality of Immature Stages of the Navel Orangeworm Stored at 3.5°C. Journal of Economic Entomology 71(6): 875–876.
Wilson H, Burks CS, Reger JE and Wenger JA, 2020. Biology and Management of Navel Orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in California. Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 11, 1–15. In California, A. transitella overwinter as larvae inside either unharvested tree nuts that have been left in the orchard (i.e., ‘mummies’ or ‘mummy nuts’), or other vulnerable agricultural commodities such as apples, figs, and oranges. All larval instars are found overwintering and the dormancy is of low intensity and duration. In the spring, larvae complete development, pupate and then adults begin to emerge from overwintering hosts as early as March. First flight adults primarily oviposit onto mummy nuts, since new crop nuts are not yet susceptible to attack. Second flight adults typically begin to appear in early July (or late June, in the warmer southern San Joaquin Valley), at which point they can make use of new crop almonds following hull split.
Apomyelois ceratoniae
Ahmadi, B. and S. Moharramipour 2015. Overwintering inside the food in the diapausing larvae of pomegranate fruit moth. Journal of Entomological Society of Iran 35(1): 19-26. Apomyelois ceratoniae overwinters as larvae in several instars. Diapause is an energetically costly life history strategy. Early instars of pomegranate fruit moth must have sequestered fewer energy reserves than older instars, thus they might be less tolerant to cold. Overwintering inside pomegranate fruits provides opportunity for larvae to feed and compensates for energy depletion. No significant difference was found between supercooling point and cold tolerance of the small and the large field collected larvae during autumn and winter.
Ahmadi, B., S. Moharramipour, and B. J. Sinclair. 2016. Overwintering Biology of the Carob Moth Apomyelois ceratoniae (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera). International Journal of Pest Management 62: 69–74. Accumulation of glycerol and sorbitol in overwintering larvae resulted in lower mortality when exposed to sub-zero temperatures. However, current winter temperatures in Iranian orchards are higher than the cold tolerance thresholds of A. ceratoniae.
Heydari, M. and Izadi, H.2014. Effects of seasonal acclimation on cold tolerance and biochemical status of the carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae Zeller, last instar larvae. Bulletin of Entomological Research104: 592-600.
Cryptolestes ferrugineus
Abdelghany, A.Y. and Fields, P.G., 2017. Mortality and movement of Cryptolestes ferrugineus and Rhyzopertha dominica in response to cooling in 300-kg grain bulks. J. Stored Prod. Res. 71: 119-124. Wheat was infested with 2 insects/species/kg and left to develop at 30oC for 5 months. Temperature of the wheat was 38oC in center with a low of 28oC on the periphery. Exposed to outside temperatures in February, by day 2 the wheat temperature dropped to 14oC in the center to a low of 9oC on the periphery. By day 4, the wheat temperature dropped to 0.5oC in the center to a low of -4.5oC on the periphery. Rhyzopertha dominica adults were found mainly in the top 40 cm wheat, and there was little movement to the center as the grain mass cooled. All adult C. ferrugineus were dead at 21 d and, all R. dominica adults were dead at 7 d. The density of immatures of C. ferrugineus and R. dominica declined over the 21 d, but there was some survival at day 21.
Bahr, I., 1978. Uberwinterungsversuche mit Schadinsekten der Getreidevorrate in ungeheizten Raumen (Overwintering experiments with insect pests of grain stocks in unheated rooms). Nachrichtenblatt-fur-den-Pflanzenschutz-in-der-DDR. Berl 32: 224-230. (Ahasverus advena, Araecerus fasciculatus, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Cryptolestes pusillus, Crypolestes turcicus, Oryzaephilus mercator, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus granarius, Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus zeamais, Sitotroga cerealella, Tribolium castaneum, Tribolium confusum)
Bareil, N., K. Crépon, and F. Piraux. 2018. Prediction of insect mortality in cooled stored grain. Journal of Stored Products Research 78: 110-117. Conditions necessary to kill 7 major insect pests (Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus granarius, Rhyzopertha dominica, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Tribolium castaneum and Tribolium confusum) was correctly predicted by a model in 77.2% of cases. Species cold tolerance ranking varied depending on the temperature levels and difference of cold tolerance between adult and immature stages depended greatly on species. A temperature of 0oC is sufficient to kill 6 major insect pest species within 3 months, but not Cryptolestes ferrugineus.
Buchelos, C. T. 1981. Coleoptera Populations at Flour Mills and Related Areas. Ann. Inst. Phytopath. Benaki 13: 6–29. Trapping and commodity samples showed that more Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Lasioderma serricorne, Oryzaephilus mercator, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Palorus subdepressus, Sitophilus granarius, Sitophilus oryzae, and Tribolium confusum adults were found during winter on damper ground floor or basement than on upper floors with colder temperatures. Rhyzoperta was not found on upper floors from December to March and few were found on ground floor or basement during these months.
Buchelos, C. TH, and C. A. Katopodis. 1995. A Survey of Beetles in Store-Rooms Containing Barley and Maize for Animal Feed, on the Island of Lefkas, Greece: Abundance and Population Fluctuation of the Most Significant Species. Journal of Stored Products Research 31: 253–58. Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus granarius, Rhyzopertha dominica and Cryptolestes ferrugineus were found during December and January but Oryzaephilus surinamensis were not.
Burks, Charles S., and David W. Hagstrum. 1999. Rapid cold hardening capacity in five species of coleopteran pests of stored grain. Journal of Stored Products Research 35(1): 65-75. Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus oryzae, Tribolium castaneum
Cotton, R. T., and .J. C. Frankenfeld. 1942. Killing mill insects by freezing. American Miller 70(9): 29-30. A Kansas mill in January was exposed for 48 hours to prevailing outdoor temperatures of -5°F. While the coldest temperature within the mill reached 2° F., the temperature inside a bag of sweepings went down to only 24° F. and other accumulations of grain dust were similarly higher. At the end of this exposure some Tribolium, Tenebroides, and Cryptolestes (Laemophloeus) were still alive.
Flinn, P.W., Hagstrum, D.W., 1998. Distribution of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Cucujidae) in response to temperature gradients in stored wheat. J. Stored Prod. Res. 34: 107-112.
Fields, PG, and NDG White. 1997. Survival and Multiplication of Stored-Product Beetles at Simulated and Actual Winter Temperatures. Canadian Entomologist 129(5): 887–898. Two years of overwintering mortality for C. ferrugineus and R. dominica were obtained from 11–13 farm granaries (40–100 t wheat). In the field, there was no survival of C. ferrugineus in granaries that had February temperatures of −6.7 °C or lower. No T. castaneum or R. dominica survived an entire winter in granaries during the 2 years.
Ganesan, Lavanya, P. G. Fields, D. S. Jayas, and F. Jian. 2021. Effects of developmental stage, cold acclimation and diet on the cold tolerance of three species of Cryptolestes (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae). Journal of Stored Products Research 91, 101773. Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Cryptolestes turcicus and Cryptolestes pusillus
Good, Newell E. 1937. Insects found in the milling streams of flour mills in the southwestern milling area. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 10(4): 135-148. Modern mills, heated and sometimes even air-conditioned, and frequently operating 24 hours a day over long periods, offer almost ideal conditions for the continuous breeding and development of insect pests. In 1932 and 1934-35, 8-ounce samples were collected monthly from each of 24 elevator boots and other mill streams of 19 selected flour mills in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Missouri. Tribolium adults comprised their greatest per centage (74.6) of the total in the November-December collections and their lowest percentage (36.1) in the following month of January. Tribolium larvae and pupae had lowest percentage (16.9) in November-December (breeding is lowest during the winter months). Cryptolestes (Laemophloeus) spp. were most numerous during January and March (18.7 and 19.3 percent respectively). Latheticus oryzae and, to a lesser extent, Rhizopertha dominica were abundant during the summer and fall but scarce in the winter and spring. Tenebroides mauritanicus shows in its seasonal abundance the same geographical distribution and uniform distribution throughout the different mill streams.
Hanec, W., Dolinski, M.G., Loschiavo, S.R., 1975. Relationship between locomotor activity and respiration rate of the rusty grain beetle, Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) at temperatures from 1 to 30oC. Manit. Entomol. 9: 29-34.
Jian, F., Jayas, D., White, N.D.G., 2004. Movement and distribution of adult rusty grain beetle, Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae), in stored wheat in response to different temperature gradients and insect densities. J. Econ. Entomol. 97, 1148-1158.
Smith, L.B. 1970. Effects of cold-acclimation on supercooling and survival of the rusty grain beetle, Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) (Col.: Cucujidae) at subzero temperatures. Can. J. Zool. 48: 853-858.
Cryptolestes pusillus
Bahr, I., 1978. Uberwinterungsversuche mit Schadinsekten der Getreidevorrate in ungeheizten Raumen (Overwintering experiments with insect pests of grain stocks in unheated rooms). Nachrichtenblatt-fur-den-Pflanzenschutz-in-der-DDR. Berl 32: 224-230. (Ahasverus advena, Araecerus fasciculatus, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Cryptolestes pusillus, Crypolestes turcicus, Oryzaephilus mercator, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus granarius, Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus zeamais, Sitotroga cerealella, Tribolium castaneum, Tribolium confusum)
Fields, PG, and NDG White. 1997. Survival and Multiplication of Stored-Product Beetles at Simulated and Actual Winter Temperatures. Canadian Entomologist 129(5): 887–898. Although C. pusillus was not tested in the granaries, it is unlikely it could survive the winter, as it had the same level of cold tolerance as T. castaneum in the laboratory.
Ganesan, Lavanya, P. G. Fields, D. S. Jayas, and F. Jian. 2021. Effects of developmental stage, cold acclimation and diet on the cold tolerance of three species of Cryptolestes (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae). Journal of Stored Products Research 91, 101773. Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Cryptolestes turcicus and Cryptolestes pusillus
Williams, G.C., 1954a. Observations on the effect of exposure to a low temperature on Laemophloeus minutus (Oliver) (Coleoptera: Cucujidae). Bull. Entomol. Res. 45, 351-359.
Cydia pomonella
Higbee, B. S., C. O. Calkins, and C. A. Temple. 1999. Larval infestation of harvest bins by codling moth. Good Fruit Grower 50: 26-31.
Higbee, B. S., C. O. Calkins, and C. Temple. 2001. Overwintering of Codling Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) Larvae in Apple Harvest Bins and Subsequent Moth Emergence. Journal of Economic Entomology 94: 1511–1517. Codling moth larvae colonized wood harvest bins at a much higher frequency than harvest bins made of injection molded plastic (189 moths emerged from wood compared with five from plastic). There was no statistical difference in the number of moths infesting bins that had been filled with infested fruit compared with bins left empty at harvest suggesting that codling moth enter the bins during the time that the bins are in the orchard before harvest.
Khani A, and Moharramipour S 2007. Seasonal Change of Cold Hardiness in the Codling Moth, Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences. 10: 2591-2594.
Khani, Abbas, and Saeid Moharramipour. 2010. Cold Hardiness and Supercooling Capacity in the Overwintering Larvae of the Codling Moth, Cydia pomonella. Journal of Insect Science 10(83): 1–12.
Khani, Abbas, Saeid Moharramipour, and Mohsen Barzegar. 2007. Cold Tolerance and Trehalose Accumulation in Overwintering Larvae of the Codling Moth, Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Eur. J. Entomol. 104: 385–392.
Neven, Lisa G. 2013. Effects of Short Photoperiod on Codling Moth Diapause and Survival. Environmental Entomology 42: 520–523.
Wang, S., X. Yin, J. Tang, and J. D. Hansen. 2004. Thermal Resistance of Different Life Stages of Codling Moth (Lepidoptera : Tortricidae). Journal of Stored Products Research 40(5): 565–574.
Yothers, M. A., and F. W. Carlson. 1941.Orchard observations of the emergence of codling moths from two-year old larvae. J. Econ. Entomol. 34: 109-110.
Cylas formicarius
Dozier, Herbert L. 1937. Sweet potato root weevil overwinters as adult in Louisiana. J. Econ. Entomol. 30: 968. Cylas formicarius can winter over in enormous numbers in the heart of the sweet potato belt in Louisiana, during a mild winter at least, and live without sweet potatoes as food for at least three months.
Kandori, Ikuo, Toshio Kimura, Hisaaki Tsumuki, and Tuyosi Sugimoto. 2006. Cold tolerance of the sweet potato weevil, Cylas formicarius (Fabricius)(Coleoptera: Brentidae), from the Southwestern Islands of Japan. Applied Entomology and Zoology 41(2): 217-226.
Takuhiro Yamaguchi, Katsuhiko Miyaji, and Osamu Setoguchi. 2005. Mating and oviposition of the sweet potato weevil, Cylas formicarius, in winter on Amami-Oshima and Kikaijima Islands. Journal of the Japanese Society of Applied Entomology and Zoology 49(4): 205-213.
Yamaguchi, T., O. Setokuchi, and K. Miyaji 2000. Development and Adult Survival of the Sweet Potato Weevil, Cylas formicarius (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Brentidae), during Winter on Amami-Oshima Island, Japan. Applied Entomology and Zoology 35(4): 451–458. Every developmental stage of the weevil (except for eggs, which were not examined) was found in sweet potato tuberous roots during winter, and adults and third instars were dominant. Adult weevils released in a sweet potato field and a field cage in December or later survived until the following late March or late April. Most of the females that started to oviposit after overwintering came from eggs laid in the previous September and October.
Endrosis sarcitrella
Cole, DB, and PD Cox. 1981. Studies on 3 Moth Species in a Scottish Port Silo, with Special Reference to Overwintering Ephestia kuehniella (Zeller) (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae). Journal of Stored Products Research 17(4): 163–181. Considerable mortality of mature Ephestia kuehniella larvae occurred after December although some appeared to enter a diapause not pupating until the following May. Adults of Endrosis sarcitrella commenced to emerge in March, and Ephestia kuehniella and Hofmannophila pseudospretella in June. Winter temperatures were low, falling from means of 12-15°C in October to 6-8°C in February but not low enough to be lethal. The distribution and relative abundance of Endrosis sarcitrella and Hofmannophila pseudospretella remained almost unchanged for the 25 yr prior to this study.
Salmond, K. F. 1956. The insect and mite fauna of a Scottish flour mill. Bull. Entomol. Res. 47: 621-630. The mill in question is one of the most northerly in Britain. Three most important pests were found to be Ephestia kuehniella Zell., Gnathocerus cornutus (F.) and Tribolium confusum Duv. It is suggested that Endrosis sarcitrella, Tipnus unicolor and Cryptophagus cellaris might be included in the list of “ hardy ” insects under winter conditions in Britain. Endrosis sarcitrella and Hofmannophila pseudospretella over winter to emerge in Spring.
Ephestia (Cadra) cautella
Buchelos, C. T. 1980. Moth populations at a typical flour mill. Ann. Inst. Phytopathol. Benaki (n.s.) 12: 188-197. Trapping and commodity samples showed that more Ephestia kuehniella, Sitotroga cerealella adults were found during the winter on damper ground floor or basement than on upper floors with colder temperatures. Cadra cautella, Plodia interpunctella and Pyralis farinalis adults were also more abundant on ground floor and in basement and decline during the winter months. Plodia diapause as mature larvae.
Hagstrum, D. W. and Sharp, J. E. 1975. Population studies on Cadra cautella in a citrus pulp warehouse with particular reference to diapause. J. Econ. Entomol. 68: 11‑14. Throughout the storage period, last-instar larvae entered diapause in increasing numbers, remained active after nondiapausing larvae of the same generation pupated and carried over the pest population in empty warehouse until the citrus pulp was restocked.
Hagstrum, D. W. and Stanley, J. M. 1979. Release‑recapture estimates of the population density of Ephestia cautella (Walker) in a commercial peanut warehouse. J. Stored Prod. Res. 15: 117‑122. Recapture rates the 1st day after release were 7% of females and 20% of males in an unstacked warehouse and 31% of males in a stocked warehouse; total recoveries were 11, 37 and 50%. Respectively. Every 4 weeks the E. cautella population increased roughly two-fold in the unstockcd warehouse (scattered peanuts remaining) and 37-fold in the stocked warehouse. Since breeding was continuous, generations overlapped.
Hagstrum, D. W. 1984. Growth of Ephestia cautella (Walker) population under conditions found in an empty peanut warehouse and response to variations in the distribution of larval food. Environ. Entomol. 13: 171‑174. When empty peanut warehouse conditions were simulated, spreading a constant amount of food among additional locations did not significantly affect the number of eggs laid by Ephestia cautella (Walker), but did reduce the number of larvae that completed development. Population growth decreased from roughly 7- to 3-fold as the number of locations increased from 1 to 24. The mean number of eggs laid at a location was proportional to the number of peanuts at that location. Larval production declined mainly as a result of females laying eggs at a smaller fraction of locations as the number of locations increased.
Lin, Ya-Ying, Cheng-Kang Tang, Pavel Saska, Ali Güncan, May-Chi Yao, and Shu-Jen Tuan. 2023. Demographic characteristics of Cadra cautella on brown rice at different temperatures: Do diapausing individuals contribute to population growth rate? Journal of Stored Products Research 101, 102073. Approximately 16.0% of late instar almond moth larvae showed signs of diapause induction at 20 ◦C, i.e., wandering behavior and delayed pupation. Developmental times of larvae (74.44 d) and pupae (17.13 d) were significantly longer in the diapausing cohort than in the non-diapausing cohort (54.89 and 15.47 d). At 20 ◦C, the offspring of the diapausing individuals were still able to contribute 12.98% to the net reproduction.
Ephestia elutella
Collins, D. A., and S. T. Conyers. 2010. The effect of sub-zero temperatures on different lifestages of Lasioderma serricorne (F.) and Ephestia elutella (Hübner). Journal of stored products research 46(4): 234-241.
Richards, Owain Westmacott, and Nadia Waloff. 1946. Study of a Population of Ephestia elutella Hubner (Lep., Phycitidae) Living on Bulk Grain. Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society of London 97(11): 253–298. Diapause larvae wander away from stored wheat and shelter in cracks and crevices. As a result of mortality of the larvae weighing least, weight of hibernating larvae appears to increase, but each individual is actually losing weight. Population of diapausing larvae was estimated to be 296, 600. In late December, larvae gradually break diapause.
Ephestia kuehniella
Andreadis, Stefanos S., Panagiotis A. Eliopoulos, and Matilda Savopoulou-Soultani 2012. Cold hardiness of immature and adult stages of the Mediterranean flour moth, Ephestia kuehniella. Journal of Stored Products Research 48: 132-136.
Buchelos, C. T. 1980. Moth populations at a typical flour mill. Ann. Inst. Phytopathol. Benaki (n.s.) 12: 188-197. Trapping and commodity samples showed that more Ephestia kuehniella, Sitotroga cerealella adults were found during the winter on damper ground floor or basement than on upper floors with colder temperatures. Cadra cautella, Plodia interpunctella and Pyralis farinalis adults were also more abundant on ground floor and in basement and decline during the winter months. Plodia diapause as mature larvae.
Cole, DB, and PD Cox. 1981. Studies on 3 Moth Species in a Scottish Port Silo, with Special Reference to Overwintering Ephestia kuehniella (Zeller) (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae). Journal of Stored Products Research 17(4): 163–181. Considerable mortality of mature Ephestia kuehniella larvae occurred after December although some appeared to enter a diapause not pupating until the following May. Adults of Endrosis sarcitrella commenced to emerge in March, and Ephestia kuehniella and Hofmannophila pseudospretella in June. Winter temperatures were low, falling from means of 12-15°C in October to 6-8°C in February but not low enough to be lethal. The distribution and relative abundance of Endrosis sarcitrella and Hofmannophila pseudospretella remained almost unchanged for the 25 yr prior to this study.
Cox, P. D., M. Mfon, S. Parkin, and J. E. Seaman. 1981. Diapause in a Glasgow strain of the flour moth, Ephestia kuehniella. Physiological Entomology 6(4): 349-356.
Dohino, Toshiyuki, Seiki Masaki, Ikuko Matsuoka, Masahiro Tanno and Toshitatsu Takano. 1999. Low Temperature as an Alternative to Fumigation for Disinfesting Stored Products. Res. Bull. Pl. Prot. Japan 35: 5-14. Exposure to – 18 ℃ was investigated on all developmental stages of six stored-product insects (Sitophilus granarius, Callosobruchus rhodesianus, Zabrotes subfasciatus, Trogoderma granarium, Plodia interpunctella and Ephestia kuehniella).
Salmond, K. F. 1956. The insect and mite fauna of a Scottish flour mill. Bull. Entomol. Res. 47: 621-630. The mill in question is one of the most northerly in Britain. Three most important pests were Ephestia kuehniella, Gnathocerus cornutus and Tribolium confusum. It is suggested that Endrosis sarcitrella, Tipnus unicolor and Cryptophagus cellaris might be included in the list of “hardy ” insects under winter conditions in Britain. Endrosis sarcitrella and Hofmannophila pseudospretella over winter to emerge in Spring.
SkovgÅrd, Henrik, Niels Holst, and Per S. Nielsen 1999. Simulation model of the Mediterranean flour moth (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Danish flour mills. Environmental entomology 28(6): 1060-1066. Thus, E. kuehniella populations may continue their development during winter in dead spaces with flour close to heated machinery,or inside conveyor belts (cf., Solomon and Adamson 1955). Larvae finishing their development before 1 May enter diapause, whereas after this date mature larvae enter the pupal state directly. By 31 December, all life stages other than larvae were assumed to die cf., Cox et al. 1981) who found that only the larvae survive winter. During winter the trap catches approached zero, but on 58 out of the total 61 sampling occasions at least 1 moth was caught. The population density in each of the 2 mills stayed at roughly the same level in the 3 yr. The level in mill B was 5-10 times that in mill A. Heat from operating machinery probably enables small pockets of flour moths to persist during winter. This may explain that moths were caught continuously, although during winter only at very low levels. The simulations suggest that the dominant one-peaked phenology is caused by environmental heterogeneity within the mill blurring out an underlying 2-peaked phenology. The larvae that hatch successfully increase slowly in size through autumn and winter (Cole and Cox 1981).
Somme L. 1966. The effect of temperature, anoxia, or injection of various substances on haemolymph composition and supercooling in larvae of Anagasta kuhnieila(Zell.). Journal of Insect Physiology 12: 1069-1083.
Hofmannophila pseudospretella
Cole, DB, and PD Cox. 1981. Studies on 3 Moth Species in a Scottish Port Silo, with Special Reference to Overwintering Ephestia kuehniella (Zeller) (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae). Journal of Stored Products Research 17(4): 163–181. Considerable mortality of mature Ephestia kuehniella larvae occurred after December although some appeared to enter a diapause not pupating until the following May. Adults of Endrosis sarcitrella commenced to emerge in March, and Ephestia kuehniella and Hofmannophila pseudospretella in June. Winter temperatures were low, falling from means of 12-15°C in October to 6-8°C in February but not low enough to be lethal. The distribution and relative abundance of Endrosis sarcitrella and Hofmannophila pseudospretella remained almost unchanged for the 25 yr prior to this study.
Salmond, K. F. 1956. The insect and mite fauna of a Scottish flour mill. Bull. Entomol. Res. 47: 621-630. The mill in question is one of the most northerly in Britain. Three most important pests were found to be Ephestia kuehniella Zell., Gnathocerus cornutus (F.) and Tribolium confusum Duv. It is suggested that Endrosis sarcitrella, Tipnus unicolor and Cryptophagus cellaris might be included in the list of “ hardy ” insects under winter conditions in Britain. Endrosis sarcitrella and Hofmannophila pseudospretella over winter to emerge in Spring.
Lariophagus distinguendus
Hansen, Lise Stengard, and Henrik Skovgard. 2010. Winter Survival of the Granary Weevil Sitophilus granarius and the Parasitoid Lariophagus distinguendus in a Simulated Grain Store. Biocontrol 55(6): 711–718. Survival of Lariophagus distinguendus and Sitophilus granarius was followed during a simulated winter with stepwise reductions of temperature down to 6°C which was maintained for 15 weeks. Only 20% of the weevils were alive after eight weeks at 6°C, whereas the survival of L. distinguendus was unaffected by the temperature decrease. After being returned to room temperature an F 1 generation of the parasitoid emerged and was able to reproduce.
Lasioderma serricorne
Buchelos, C. T. 1981. Coleoptera Populations at Flour Mills and Related Areas. Ann. Inst. Phytopath. Benaki 13: 6–29. Trapping and commodity samples showed that more Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Lasioderma serricorne, Oryzaephilus mercator, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Palorus subdepressus, Sitophilus granarius, Sitophilus oryzae, and Tribolium confusum adults survived winter on damper ground floor or basement than on upper floors with colder temperatures.
Childs, Dana P., James E. Overby, Betty J. Watkins, and Dan Niffenegcer 1970. Low Temperature Effect Upon Third- and Fourth-Instar Cigarette Beetle Larvae. Journal of Economic Entomology 63(6): 1860–1864
Childs, D.P., Overby, J.E., Watkins, B.J., 1968. Low temperature effect on cigarette beetle infestation in tobacco hogsheads. Journal of Economic Entomology 61: 992–996.
Collins, D. A., and S. T. Conyers. 2010. The effect of sub-zero temperatures on different lifestages of Lasioderma serricorne (F.) and Ephestia elutella (Hübner). Journal of stored products research 46(4): 234-241.
Fletcher, L.W., J.S. Long, and C.D. Delamar 1973. Low temperature and infestations of beetles in tobacco hogsheads stored in field warehouses; Tob. Sci. 17: 163–164
Imai, T., and S. Tsuchiya. 2007. Temperature Condations Affecting Winter Survival of the Cigarette Beetle, Lasioderma serricorne (F) (Coleoptera: Anobiidae). Beitrage Zur Tabakforschung International / Contributions To Tobacco Research 22(4): 303–306. Cigarette beetle larvae survived in three tobacco warehouses and three sheds at five locations in Japan during winter when daytime temperatures rise sufficiently.
Imai, T. 2010. Suppression of the Population of Lasioderma serricorne in Stored Tobacco by Relocation of Warehouses to Cooler Areas. p. 668–670. In Proceedings of the 10th International Working Conference on Stored Product Protection edited by M. O. Carvalho, P. G. Fields, C. S. Adler, F. H. Arthur, C. G. Athanassiou, J. F. Campbell, F. Fleurat-Lessard, et al., Julius Kühn-Institut.
Oryzaephilus surinamensis
Armitage, DM, and BE Llewellin. 1987. The Survival of Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L) (Coleoptera, Silvanidae) and Sitophilus granarius (L) (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) in Aerated Bins of Wheat during British Winters. Bulletin of Entomological Research 77(3): 457–466. O. surinamensis always survived better than S. granarius in the same bin and position (surface and center of two 40-tonne bins of wheat). S. granarius always died out in both positions in both bins, but O. surinamensis always survived at the surface of both bins, and in one year it survived at the center of the bin.
Bahr, I., 1978. Uberwinterungsversuche mit Schadinsekten der Getreidevorrate in ungeheizten Raumen (Overwintering experiments with insect pests of grain stocks in unheated rooms). Nachrichtenblatt-fur-den-Pflanzenschutz-in-der-DDR. Berl 32: 224-230. (Ahasverus advena, Araecerus fasciculatus, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Cryptolestes pusillus, Crypolestes turcicus, Oryzaephilus mercator, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus granarius, Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus zeamais, Sitotroga cerealella, Tribolium castaneum, Tribolium confusum)
Bareil, N., K. Crépon, and F. Piraux. 2018. Prediction of insect mortality in cooled stored grain. Journal of Stored Products Research 78: 110-117. Conditions necessary to kill 7 major insect pests (Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus granarius, Rhyzopertha dominica, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Tribolium castaneum and Tribolium confusum) was correctly predicted by a model in 77.2% of cases. Species cold tolerance ranking varied depending on the temperature levels and difference of cold tolerance between adult and immature stages depended greatly on species. A temperature of 0oC is sufficient to kill 6 major insect pest species within 3 months, but not Cryptolestes ferrugineus.
Buchelos, C. T. 1981. Coleoptera Populations at Flour Mills and Related Areas. Ann. Inst. Phytopath. Benaki 13: 6–29. Trapping and commodity samples showed that more Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Lasioderma serricorne, Oryzaephilus mercator, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Palorus subdepressus, Sitophilus granarius, Sitophilus oryzae, and Tribolium confusum adults were found during winter on damper ground floor or basement than on upper floors with colder temperatures. Rhyzoperta was not found on upper floors from December to March and few were found on ground floor or basement during these months.
Buchelos, C. TH, and C. A. Katopodis. 1995. A Survey of Beetles in Store-Rooms Containing Barley and Maize for Animal Feed, on the Island of Lefkas, Greece: Abundance and Population Fluctuation of the Most Significant Species. Journal of Stored Products Research 31: 253–58. Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus granarius, Rhyzopertha dominica and Cryptolestes ferrugineus were found during December and January but Oryzaephilus surinamensis were not.
Burks, Charles S., and David W. Hagstrum. 1999. Rapid cold hardening capacity in five species of coleopteran pests of stored grain. Journal of Stored Products Research 35(1): 65-75. Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus oryzae, Tribolium castaneum
Rilett, Omar. 1956. Winter Insect Control Programs Are Essential in Food Plants. Pest Control 24 (9): 34, 36. Locations with insects were similar in all mills, both heated and unheated. Temperatures were not cold enough to eliminate insects. Most of the 23 beetle species were only adults. All Attagenus unicolor (reported as Attagenus piceus) and Tenebrio molitor were larvae. Tenebrio obscurus, Tenebroides mauritanicus and Tribolium confusum were a mix of adults and larvae.
Rilett, R. Omar and Robert D. Weigel 1956. A Winter Survey of Coleoptera In Feed and Flour Mills. Journal of Economic Entomology 49(2): 154–156. A winter survey of 11 feed and flour mills at Buffalo, New York, between October 1954 and March 1955 showed significant residual insect populations. Samples consisted of whole grain, processed foods, floor sweepings, debris that had accumulated between the floor boards and in the corners of rooms, grain dust on and within mill machinery, grain, flour, and dust at the base of chutes and other places peculiar to the mills investigated. A total of 2632 insects representing 23 species were recovered from approximately 27 pounds of sample material. The temperatures of samples collected ranged from 3°C. to 26°C. Attagenus unicolor as Attagenus piceus (8 mills), Oryzaephilus surinamensis (8 mills), Tenebroides mauritanicus (6 mills) and Tribolium confusum (5 mills) were the most widespread. Tribolium confusum, Attagenus unicolor, Gnathocerus cornutus, Silophilus oryzae, and Tribolium castaneum, in the above order of abundance, constituted the hulk of the insects collected. Although insects are thought to be scarce during the winter, the large number of beetles recovered shows that the insect population of mills may be quite high in winter for both heated and unheated mills given that sample material examined was only a minute fraction of residual food material present in the mills. Only one insect was found in one mill with the policy of cleaning completely, every 2 weeks each crack and crevice where refuse accumulates.
Phthorimaea operculella
Andreadis, Stefanos S., Yianna Poulia, Sofia Noukari, Barbara Aslanidou, and Matilda Savopoulou-Soultani. 2015. Winter Is Coming: Cold Hardiness Attributes of a Field Population of the Potato Tuberworm Phthorimaea operculella. PeerJ 3, e1870.
Andreadis, Stefanos S.,Yianna Poulia, Sofia Noukari, Barbara Aslanidou & Matilda Savopoulou-Soultani 2016. Cold hardiness attributes of a field population of the potato tuberworm, Phthorimaea operculella. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 160: 109–116. Pre-freeze mortality suggest that P. operculella is considered to be chill tolerant rather than freeze intolerant. High degree of cold hardiness relative to habitat temperatures suggests that winter mortality of P. operculella is due to low temperatures is not likely to occur and pest outbreaks may take place following a mild winter.
Plodia interpunctella
Buchelos, C. T. 1980. Moth populations at a typical flour mill. Ann. Inst. Phytopathol. Benaki (n.s.) 12: 188-197. Trapping and commodity samples showed that more Ephestia kuehniella, Sitotroga cerealella adults were found during the winter on damper ground floor or basement than on upper floors with colder temperatures. Cadra cautella, Plodia interpunctella and Pyralis farinalis adults were also more abundant on ground floor and in basement and decline during the winter months. Plodia diapause as mature larvae.
Carrillo, M. A., R. D. Moon, W. F. Wilcke, R. V. Morey, N. Kaliyan, and W. D. Hutchison. 2006. Overwintering Mortality of Indianmeal Moth (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae) in Southern Minnesota. Environmental Entomology 35 (4): 843–855. Overwintering mortality of P. interpunctella under field conditions reached 100% in all locations inside the grain bins; however, depth within the grain mass, location inside the grain bin, and the duration of exposure to outdoor conditions significantly affected the rate of mortality. A mathematical model for the overwintering mortality of P. interpunctellais proposed as a first step to forecast early season infestations under field conditions. despite the extremely low minimum temperature recorded inside grain bins (-21.79oC), the mean SCP of overwintering P. interpunctella (approximately -24oC) was never reached, thus suggesting that mortality likely occurred as a result of chill injury and not as a result of freezing.
Dohino, Toshiyuki, Seiki Masaki, Ikuko Matsuoka, Masahiro Tanno and Toshitatsu Takano. 1999. Low Temperature as an Alternative to Fumigation for Disinfesting Stored Products. Res. Bull. Pl. Prot. Japan 35: 5-14. Exposure to – 18 ℃ was investigated on all developmental stages of six stored-product insects (Sitophilus granarius, Callosobruchus rhodesianus, Zabrotes subfasciatus, Trogoderma granarium, Plodia interpunctella and Ephestia kuehniella).
Johnson, J. A. 2007. Survival of Indianmeal moth and navel orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) at low temperatures. Journal of economic entomology 100(4): 1482-1488.
Kaliyan, Nalladurai, R. Vance Morey, William F. Wilcke, Mario A. Carrillo, and Colleen A. Cannon. 2007. Low-temperature aeration to control Indianmeal moth, Plodia interpunctella (Hübner), in stored grain in twelve locations in the United States: a simulation study. Journal of stored products research 43(2): 177-192. 100% mortality of diapausing, cold-acclimated Plodia interpunctella larvae could be achieved at a grain depth of 0.4 m from the top grain surface in all locations with aeration fan operated about 10% of the time from December to February.
Yoshida, Toshiharu. 1970. Seasonal Abundance of Indian-Meal Moth Plodia interpunctella Hübner (Lepidoptera). Food Hygenic and Safety Society of Japan/Shokuhin Eiseigaku Zasshi 11 (Supp.): 33–39. Early October 5th generation emerges and almost all diapause as full grown larvae.
Rhyzopertha dominica
Bahr, I., 1978. Uberwinterungsversuche mit Schadinsekten der Getreidevorrate in ungeheizten Raumen (Overwintering experiments with insect pests of grain stocks in unheated rooms). Nachrichtenblatt-fur-den-Pflanzenschutz-in-der-DDR. Berl 32: 224-230. (Ahasverus advena, Araecerus fasciculatus, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Cryptolestes pusillus, Crypolestes turcicus, Oryzaephilus mercator, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus granarius, Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus zeamais, Sitotroga cerealella, Tribolium castaneum, Tribolium confusum)
Bareil, N., K. Crépon, and F. Piraux. 2018. Prediction of insect mortality in cooled stored grain. Journal of Stored Products Research 78: 110-117. Conditions necessary to kill 7 major insect pests (Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus granarius, Rhyzopertha dominica, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Tribolium castaneum and Tribolium confusum) was correctly predicted by a model in 77.2% of cases. Species cold tolerance ranking varied depending on the temperature levels and difference of cold tolerance between adult and immature stages depended greatly on species. A temperature of 0oC is sufficient to kill 6 major insect pest species within 3 months, but not Cryptolestes ferrugineus.
Buchelos, C. T. 1981. Coleoptera Populations at Flour Mills and Related Areas. Ann. Inst. Phytopath. Benaki 13: 6–29. Trapping and commodity samples showed that more Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Lasioderma serricorne, Oryzaephilus mercator, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Palorus subdepressus, Sitophilus granarius, Sitophilus oryzae, and Tribolium confusum adults survived winter on damper ground floor or basement than on upper floors with colder temperatures. Rhyzoperta was not found on upper floors from December to March and few were found on ground floor or basement during these months.
Buchelos, C. TH, and C. A. Katopodis. 1995. A Survey of Beetles in Store-Rooms Containing Barley and Maize for Animal Feed, on the Island of Lefkas, Greece: Abundance and Population Fluctuation of the Most Significant Species. Journal of Stored Products Research 31: 253–58. Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus granarius, Rhyzopertha dominica and Cryptolestes ferrugineus were found during December and January but Oryzaephilus surinamensis were not.
Burks, Charles S., and David W. Hagstrum. 1999. Rapid cold hardening capacity in five species of coleopteran pests of stored grain. Journal of Stored Products Research 35(1): 65-75. Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus oryzae, Tribolium castaneum
Abdelghany, A.Y., Fields, P.G., 2017. Mortality and movement of Cryptolestes ferrugineus and Rhyzopertha dominica in response to cooling in 300-kg grain bulks. J. Stored Prod. Res. 71, 119-124. Wheat was infested with 2 insects/species/kg and left to develop at 30oC for 5 months. Temperature of the wheat was 38oC in center with a low of 28oC on the periphery. Exposed to outside temperatures in February by day 2, the wheat temperature dropped to 14oC in the center to a low of 9oC on the periphery. By day 4, the wheat temperature dropped to 0.5oC in the center to a low of -4.5oC on the periphery. Rhyzopertha dominica adults were found mainly in the top 40 cm wheat, and there was little movement to the center as the grain mass cooled. All adult C. ferrugineus were dead at 21 d and, all R. dominica adults were dead at 7 d. The density of immatures of C. ferrugineus and R. dominica declined over the 21 d, but there was some survival at day 21.
David, M.H., Mills, R.B., White, G.D., 1977. Effects of low temperature acclimation on developmental stages of stored-product insects. Environ. Entomol. 6: 181-184. Sitophilus oryzae. Sitophilus granarius, Rhyzopertha dominica
Fields, PG, and NDG White. 1997. Survival and Multiplication of Stored-Product Beetles at Simulated and Actual Winter Temperatures. Canadian Entomologist 129(5): 887–898. Two years of overwintering mortality for C. ferrugineus and R. dominica were obtained from 11–13 farm granaries (40–100 t wheat). In the field, there was no survival of C. ferrugineus in granaries that had February temperatures of −6.7 °C or lower. No T. castaneum or R. dominica survived an entire winter in granaries during the 2 years.
Flinn, PW, DW Hagstrum, C. Reed, and TW Phillips. 2004. Simulation Model of Rhyzopertha dominica Population Dynamics in Concrete Grain Bins. Journal of Stored Products Research 40(1): 39–45. Because the grain remains warmer longer in large elevator bins when unaerated, insects have the potential to reach a higher density before natural cooling occurs in the winter. In December, the highest insect density was in the top center of grain mass, and decreased steadily with increasing depth and towards the periphery of the grain mass. R. dominica attains this spatial distribution because immigration is primarily through the top of the bin, and higher populations occur in the interior of the grain mass because of warmer temperatures there. From 20 September to 14 December, populations of R. dominica increased from 0.1 to 3.5 insects per kg of wheat.
Good, Newell E. 1937. Insects found in the milling streams of flour mills in the southwestern milling area. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 10(4): 135-148. Modern mills, heated and sometimes even air-conditioned, and frequently operating 24 hours a day over long periods, offer almost ideal conditions for the continuous breeding and development of insect pests. In 1932 and 1934-35, 8-ounce samples were collected monthly from each of 24 elevator boots and other mill streams of 19 selected flour mills in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Missouri. Tribolium adults comprised their greatest per centage (74.6) of the total in the November-December collections and their lowest percentage (36.1) in the following month of January. Tribolium larvae and pupae had lowest percentage (16.9) in November-December (breeding is lowest during the winter months). Cryptolestes (Laemophloeus) spp. were most numerous during January and March (18.7 and 19.3 percent respectively). Latheticus oryzae and, to a lesser extent, Rhizopertha dominica were abundant during the summer and fall but scarce in the winter and spring. Tenebroides mauritanicus shows in its seasonal abundance the same geographical distribution and uniform distribution throughout the different mill streams.
Hagstrum, DW, and PW Flinn. 1994. Survival of Rhyzopertha dominica (Coleoptera, Bostrichidae) in Stored Wheat Under Fall and Winter Temperature Conditions. Environmental Entomology 23(2): 390–395. Cold temperature survivorship of Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) populations with a natural age structure in stored wheat was estimated for a natural fall cooling rate of 2°C per week and winter temperatures of 17, 13,9, and 5°C. During the acclimation period, many insects died, and roughly 80, 55, and 25% of the insects were alive after temperatures had decreased at a rate of 2°C per week from 17°C to 13, 9, and 5°C, respectively. At the end of cold temperature exposure period, many R. dominica survived at 17°C, a few at 13°C, but none at 5 or 9°C. The mostly immature insect population inside kernels was killed less rapidly than the external adult population at 5 and 9°C and more rapidly at 13 and 17°C.
Khare, B. P. 1965. Starvation Resistance Of Some Coleopterous Insect Pests of Stored Grain. Indian Journal of Entomology 27(4): 489-490. Trogoderma granarium, Tribolium castaneum, Rhyzopertha dominica. The periods after which the first deaths occurred were similar for all instars of all three species, and so were the periods to the last deaths of the first-instar larvae, but larvae of Trogoderma in the later instars survived for up to 261-321 days, as compared with 22-32 days for Tribolium and 19-24 for Rhyzopertha. It was noted that the Trogoderma larvae, unlike the others, ceased moulting, became smaller in size and lighter in colour, lost most of their setae and did not pupate; consumption of food reserves is suggested as a reason for this. Some larvae of the other species pupated.
Mu, Zhenya, Jin Wang, Yan Zhang, Xiaozhe Qi, Li Li, and Jinying Chen. 2021. Effect of Temperature Gradient of Grain Storage on Migration and Distribution of Three Pests. J Biomed Res Environ Sci. 2(7): 632-640. Sitophilus oryzae, Rhizopertha dominica and Tribolium castaneum
Nguyen, D.T. 2008. Effects of starvation period on the locomotory response of Rhyzopertha dominica (F.). J. Stored Prod. Res. 44: 100–102. After 1 day of starvation, males walked 0.37 cm/s, 32% faster than females. As the period of starvation increased, males and females became slower, turned less and fewer located a food source.
Reed, CR, DW Hagstrum, PW Flinn, and RF Allen. 2003. Wheat in Bins and Discharge Spouts, and Grain Residues on Floors of Empty Bins in Concrete Grain Elevators as Habitats for Stored-Grain Beetles and Their Natural Enemies. Journal of Economic Entomology 96(3): 996–1004. Wheat stored in upright concrete bins at seven grain elevators in central Kansas was sampled intermittently for insects over a 2.5-yr period. Cryptolestesspp. were >40% of all insects in the power vac samples in three of five time periods and >60% of all insects in discharge spout samples in four of the five time periods. Cryptolestesspp. was an early colonizer, being found in the grain mass shortly after new grain was added. Rhyzopertha dominicaappeared to be slower to colonize grain and grain residue, but sometimes developed largepopulations (i.e., 2.4 adults/kg between July and December 2000). Sitophilusspp. weevils often were present in grain masses, were often abundant in grain in the discharge spouts (i.e., 11.1 adults/kg between July and December 2000), and they were abundant in grain residue in empty bins in May/June 2000 (5.3 adults/kg). Differences in density and species distribution of insects in grain in the upper part of the grain mass and those in the discharge spouts indicated that the populations were not closely related. Grain in discharge spouts appeared to provide an incubation chamber for pest insects, and removing this grain periodically should reduce the resident populations. Residue in empty bins often was densely infested compared with samples from the grain masses. Cleaning the empty bins before refilling with newly harvested wheat resulted in a significantly reduced density of pest insects in discharge spouts later, and the effect lasted at least 12 wk after filling.
Stejskal, V., J. Zuska, P. Werner, and Z. Kucerova. 1999. Survival over the Winter of Rhyzopertha dominica F. (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) in Hot Spots Caused by Improper Grain Storage Technology: The First Record in the Czech Republic. Plant Protection Science-UZPI (Czech Republic). 35: 23–25. Rhyzopertha dominica survived in hot spots during winter.
Surtees, G., 1964. Laboratory studies on dispersion behavior of adult beetles in grain. IV. The lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha Dominica (F.) (Coleoptera, Bostrychidae). Bull. Entomol. Res. 54: 715-722.
Swain, Wayland R. 1975. Cold tolerance in relation to starvation of adult Rhyzopertha dominica (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae). The Canadian Entomologist 107(10): 1057-1061. Mortality from starvation at 30oC increased from 0% after 4 days to 100% after 18 days. Tolerance to subfreezing temperatures was reduced as starvation period increased.
Sitophilus granarius
Armitage, DM, and BE Llewellin. 1987. The Survival of Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L) (Coleoptera, Silvanidae) and Sitophilus granarius (L) (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) in Aerated Bins of Wheat during British Winters. Bulletin of Entomological Research 77(3): 457–466. O. surinamensis always survived better than S. granariusin the same bin and position (surface and center of two 40-tonne bins of wheat). S. granarius always died out in both positions in both bins, but O. surinamensisalways survived at the surface of both bins, and in one year it survived at the center of the bin.
Bahr, I., 1978. Uberwinterungsversuche mit Schadinsekten der Getreidevorrate in ungeheizten Raumen (Overwintering experiments with insect pests of grain stocks in unheated rooms). Nachrichtenblatt-fur-den-Pflanzenschutz-in-der-DDR. Berl 32: 224-230. (Ahasverus advena, Araecerus fasciculatus, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Cryptolestes pusillus, Crypolestes turcicus, Oryzaephilus mercator, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus granarius, Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus zeamais, Sitotroga cerealella, Tribolium castaneum, Tribolium confusum)
Bareil, N., K. Crépon, and F. Piraux. 2018. Prediction of insect mortality in cooled stored grain. Journal of Stored Products Research 78: 110-117. Conditions necessary to kill 7 major insect pests (Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus granarius, Rhyzopertha dominica, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Tribolium castaneum and Tribolium confusum) was correctly predicted by a model in 77.2% of cases. Species cold tolerance ranking varied depending on the temperature levels and difference of cold tolerance between adult and immature stages depended greatly on species. A temperature of 0oC is sufficient to kill 6 major insect pest species within 3 months, but not Cryptolestes ferrugineus.
Buchelos, C. T. 1981. Coleoptera Populations at Flour Mills and Related Areas. Ann. Inst. Phytopath. Benaki 13: 6–29. Trapping and commodity samples showed that more Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Lasioderma serricorne, Oryzaephilus mercator, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Palorus subdepressus, Sitophilus granarius, Sitophilus oryzae, and Tribolium confusum adults were found during winter on damper ground floor or basement than on upper floors with colder temperatures. Rhyzoperta was not found on upper floors from December to March and few were found on ground floor or basement during these months. Rhyzoperta was not found on upper floors from December to March and few were found on ground floor or basement during these months.
Buchelos, C. TH, and C. A. Katopodis. 1995. A Survey of Beetles in Store-Rooms Containing Barley and Maize for Animal Feed, on the Island of Lefkas, Greece: Abundance and Population Fluctuation of the Most Significant Species. Journal of Stored Products Research 31: 253–58. Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus granarius, Rhyzopertha dominica and Cryptolestes ferrugineus were found during December and January but Oryzaephilus surinamensis were not.
David, M.H., Mills, R.B., White, G.D., 1977. Effects of low temperature acclimation on developmental stages of stored-product insects. Environ. Entomol. 6: 181-184. Sitophilus oryzae. Sitophilus granarius, Rhyzopertha dominica
Dohino, Toshiyuki, Seiki Masaki, Ikuko Matsuoka, Masahiro Tanno and Toshitatsu Takano. 1999. Low Temperature as an Alternative to Fumigation for Disinfesting Stored Products. Res. Bull. Pl. Prot. Japan 35: 5-14. Exposure to – 18 ℃ was investigated on all developmental stages of six stored-product insects (Sitophilus granarius, Callosobruchus rhodesianus, Zabrotes subfasciatus, Trogoderma granarium, Plodia interpunctella and Ephestia kuehniella).
Fleming, D.A. and D.M. Armitage 2003. The survival of developmental Sitophilus granarius (L.) subjected to constant and fluctuating temperatures between 0 and 10oC. Proc. 8th Int. Working Conf. Stored-Prod. Prot. p. 635–638. Surface infestations of grain weevils, S. granarius, have occurred during mid-winter in commercial aerated stores and in 20-tonne cooled bins when the grain was stored over 2 seasons and temperatures were rarely above 5°C. When the temperatures were allowed to cycle between 0 and 10°C, it extended the time needed to eliminate all developing stages to more than 16 weeks.
Granovsky, TA, and RB Mills. 1982. Feeding and Mortality of Sitophilus granarius (L.) Adults during Simulated Winter Farm Bin Temperatures. Environmental Entomology 11(2): 324–326. After gradual cold-temperature acclimation, granary weevils, Sitophilus granarius, fed on cut wheat kernels, but not on undamaged kernels, at 4.4°C. Mortality was greater for weevils confined with single, uncut kernels than for those confined with cut kernels, and males died sooner than females.
Hansen, Lise Stengard, and Henrik Skovgard. 2010. Winter Survival of the Granary Weevil Sitophilus granarius and the Parasitoid Lariophagus distinguendus in a Simulated Grain Store. Biocontrol 55(6): 711–718. Survival of Lariophagus distinguendus and Sitophilus granarius was followed during a simulated winter with stepwise reductions of temperature down to 6°C which was maintained for 15 weeks. Only 20% of the weevils were alive after eight weeks at 6°C, whereas the survival of L. distinguendus was unaffected by the temperature decrease. After being returned to room temperature an F 1 generation of the parasitoid emerged and was able to reproduce.
Howe, R. W. and B. D. Hole. 1968. The susceptibility of developmental stages of Sitophilus granarius (L.) (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) to moderately low temperatures. J. Stored Prod. Res. 4: 147-157.
Tsvetkov, D. 1965. The winter cooling of stored cereals and of their products as a cheap and effective means for the control of storehouse pests. Rastitelna Zashtita 13(1): 12-17. Low temperatures have been used in Bulgaria for more than 10 years as a means of controlling stored grain insects during the winter but has not always been done adequately. In 1952-1953, the grain moth Sitotroga cerealella became very numerous, but numbers fell sharply in 1954 following prolonged cold during winter. Mortality of Sitophilus granarius and Sitophilus oryzae was also high.
Sitophilus oryzae
Bahr, I., 1978. Uberwinterungsversuche mit Schadinsekten der Getreidevorrate in ungeheizten Raumen (Overwintering experiments with insect pests of grain stocks in unheated rooms). Nachrichtenblatt-fur-den-Pflanzenschutz-in-der-DDR. Berl 32: 224-230. (Ahasverus advena, Araecerus fasciculatus, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Cryptolestes pusillus, Crypolestes turcicus, Oryzaephilus mercator, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus granarius, Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus zeamais, Sitotroga cerealella, Tribolium castaneum, Tribolium confusum)
Bareil, N., K. Crépon, and F. Piraux. 2018. Prediction of insect mortality in cooled stored grain. Journal of Stored Products Research 78: 110-117. Conditions necessary to kill 7 major insect pests (Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus granarius, Rhyzopertha dominica, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Tribolium castaneum and Tribolium confusum) was correctly predicted by a model in 77.2% of cases. Species cold tolerance ranking varied depending on the temperature levels and difference of cold tolerance between adult and immature stages depended greatly on species. A temperature of 0oC is sufficient to kill 6 major insect pest species within 3 months, but not Cryptolestes ferrugineus.
Buchelos, C. T. 1981. Coleoptera Populations at Flour Mills and Related Areas. Ann. Inst. Phytopath. Benaki 13: 6–29. Trapping and commodity samples showed that more Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Lasioderma serricorne, Oryzaephilus mercator, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Palorus subdepressus, Sitophilus granarius, Sitophilus oryzae, and Tribolium confusum adults were found during winter on damper ground floor or basement than on upper floors with colder temperatures. Rhyzoperta was not found on upper floors from December to March and few were found on ground floor or basement during these months.
Buchelos, C. TH, and C. A. Katopodis. 1995. A Survey of Beetles in Store-Rooms Containing Barley and Maize for Animal Feed, on the Island of Lefkas, Greece: Abundance and Population Fluctuation of the Most Significant Species. Journal of Stored Products Research 31: 253–58. Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus granarius, Rhyzopertha dominica and Cryptolestes ferrugineus were found during December and January but Oryzaephilus surinamensis were not.
Burks, Charles S., and David W. Hagstrum. 1999. Rapid cold hardening capacity in five species of coleopteran pests of stored grain. Journal of Stored Products Research 35(1): 65-75. Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus oryzae, Tribolium
Evans, D. E. 1977. The capacity for increase at a low temperature of several Australian populations of Sitophilus oryzae (L.). Australian Journal of Ecology 2(1): 55-67.
Evans, D. E. 1979. A comparison of the capacity for increase at a low temperature of foreign and Australian populations of Sitophilus oryzae (L.) and S. granarius (L.). Australian Journal of Ecology 4(1): 105-114.
Evans, D. E. 1980. Further studies on acclimatization to low temperatures in the grain weevils Sitophilus oryzae (L.) and Sitophilus granarius (L.). Australian Journal of ecology 5(4): 371-378.
Evans, D. E. 1983. The influence of relative humidity and thermal acclimation on the survival of adult grain beetles in cooled grain. Journal of stored products Research 19(4): 173-180.
Mu, Zhenya, Jin Wang, Yan Zhang, Xiaozhe Qi, Li Li, and Jinying Chen. 2021. Effect of Temperature Gradient of Grain Storage on Migration and Distribution of Three Pests. J Biomed Res Environ Sci. 2(7): 632-640. Sitophilus oryzae, Rhizopertha dominica and Tribolium castaneum
Nakakita, H., and H. Ikenaga. 1997. Action of Low Temperature on Physiology of Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky and Sitophilus oryzae (L) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Rice Storage. Journal of Stored Products Research 33 (1): 31–38. Oxygen consumption by the adults
of both species was reduced as temperature was decreased.
Okram, Supriya, and T. K. Hath. 2019. Biology of Sitophilus oryzae (L.)(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on stored rice grains during different seasons in Terai agro-ecology of West Bengal. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci 8: 1955-1963.
Rilett, Omar. 1956. Winter Insect Control Programs Are Essential in Food Plants. Pest Control 24 (9): 34, 36. Locations with insects were similar in all mills, both heated and unheated. Temperatures were not cold enough to eliminate insects. Most of the 23 beetle species were only adults. All Attagenus unicolor (reported as Attagenus piceus) and Tenebrio molitor were larvae. Tenebrio obscurus, Tenebroides mauritanicus and Tribolium confusum were a mix of adults and larvae.
Rilett, R. Omar and Robert D. Weigel 1956. A Winter Survey of Coleoptera In Feed and Flour Mills. Journal of Economic Entomology 49(2): 154–156. A winter survey of 11 feed and flour mills at Buffalo, New York, between October 1954 and March 1955 showed significant residual insect populations. Samples consisted of whole grain, processed foods, floor sweepings, debris that had accumulated between the floor boards and in the corners of rooms, grain dust on and within mill machinery, grain, flour, and dust at the base of chutes and other places peculiar to the mills investigated. A total of 2632 insects representing 23 species were recovered from approximately 27 pounds of sample material. The temperatures of samples collected ranged from 3°C. to 26°C. Attagenus unicolor as Attagenus piceus (8 mills), Oryzaephilus surinamensis (8 mills), Tenebroides mauritanicus (6 mills) and Tribolium confusum (5 mills) were the most widespread. Tribolium confusum, Attagenus unicolor, Gnathocerus cornutus, Silophilus oryzae, and Tribolium castaneum, in the above order of abundance, constituted the hulk of the insects collected. Although insects are thought to be scarce during the winter, the large number of beetles recovered shows that the insect population of mills may be quite high in winter for both heated and unheated mills given that sample material examined was only a minute fraction of residual food material present in the mills. Only one insect was found in one mill with the policy of cleaning completely, every 2 weeks each crack and crevice where refuse accumulates.
Robinson, W. 1926. Low Temperature And Moisture As Factors In The Ecology Of The Rice Weevil, Sitophilus oryza L. And The Granary Weevil, Sitophilus granarius L. University of Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 41. Both species are unable to endure dormancy. Oryza becomes dormant at approximately 7.2° C. (45° F.) and granarius at 1.6° C. (35° F.) ; and in this condition they will perish in seventeen and thirty-eight days respectively. During exposure to low temperatures, a continuous loss of weight occurs with each species, and this loss is regular and constant. Oryza is more sensitive to dryness in wheat than granarius but neither can endure a moisture content as low as 8.2 per cent. Probably 14.0 per cent is necessary for oryza, while granarius can exist upon 12.5 per cent or slightly less. Oryza loses its moisture content in four days while granarius retains some moisture for eleven days. Dried wheat raises and moist wheat lowers their freezing points.
Sahoo, Gayatree, and Braja Kishore Sahoo. 2021. Biology and Life Table Study of Rice Weevil Sitophilus Weevil in Milled Rice Grains under Coastal Climatic Condition of Odisha. Environment and Ecology 39(4a): 1212–1218. Total egg to adult developmental time was 87 to 102 days in males and 98 to 109 days in females during winter with 4 instars compared to 59 to 70 days in males and 64 to 80 days in females during summer with 5 instars. Temperature and relative humidity were 23.42 ± 1.86 and 69.3 ± 1.8 during summer (May- July 2016) and 24.23 ± 1.78 and 69 ± 1.4 during winter (November 2016 – January 2017). During winter when the adults were provided with food, the male lived for 43 to 51 days and female for 54 to 61 days, but without food the adult male and female longevity were 5 to 7 and 7 to 12 days. Pre mating period observed during present study ranged from 2 to 4 days with an average of 3.0 ± 0.32 days in summer and 3 to 5 days with an average of 3.8 ± 0.37 days in winter.
Tsvetkov, D. 1965. The winter cooling of stored cereals and of their products as a cheap and effective means for the control of storehouse pests. Rastitelna Zashtita 13(1): 12-17. Low temperatures have been used in Bulgaria for more than 10 years as a means of controlling stored grain insects during the winter but has not always been done adequately. In 1952-1953, the grain moth Sitotroga cerealella became very numerous, but numbers fell sharply in 1954 following prolonged cold during winter. Mortality of Sitophilus granarius and Sitophilus oryzae was also high.
Yoshida, T., Tamamura, Y., Kawano, K., Takahashi, K, Takuma, T. and Torihara, T. 1956. On The Flower Visiting of the Rice Weevil, Sitophilus oryzae Linne. The Ecological Studies of the Pests Of Stored Grains. Part 1. Miyazaki Daigaku Gakugei Gakubu Kiyo III Shizen Kagaku Memoirs of the Faculty of Liberal Arts and Education, Miyazaki University; Natural Science 1(2): 173–178. The flight and flower-feeding of the overwintering weevils begins in the early spring. Weevils collected from flowers had a greater reproductive rate than those collected from mills. More weevils were found on flowers in village than further away and maximum distance was 400 meters from nearest farm.
Yoshida, T., and T. Takuma. 1959. Seasonal Fluctuation of The Number of The Flower-Visiting Rice Weevil, Sitophilus oryzae Linne. Japanese Journal of Applied Entomology and Zoology Nihon Oyo Dobutsu Konchu Gakkai 3(4): 281–285. Flower- visiting begins in April after a long hibernation and cease in late May or early June. Flower-feeding weevils have greater longevity and fecundity.
Yoshida, Toshiharu, Yoshinobu Tamamuea, Kenji Kawano, Koichi Takahashi, Toshikazu Takuma, and Toshio Shimabara. 1956. Habit of Maize Weevils to Visit Flowers. Bulletin of Faculty of Fine Arts and Literature, Miyazaki University 1–2: 137–178.
Sitophilus zeamais
Bahr, I., 1978. Uberwinterungsversuche mit Schadinsekten der Getreidevorrate in ungeheizten Raumen (Overwintering experiments with insect pests of grain stocks in unheated rooms). Nachrichtenblatt-fur-den-Pflanzenschutz-in-der-DDR. Berl 32: 224-230. (Ahasverus advena, Araecerus fasciculatus, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Cryptolestes pusillus, Crypolestes turcicus, Oryzaephilus mercator, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus granarius, Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus zeamais, Sitotroga cerealella, Tribolium castaneum, Tribolium confusum)
Dix, D. E. and J. N. All. 1985. Invasion Patterns and Sex-ratio Dynamics of the Maize Weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Infesting Field Corn. J. Econ. Entomol. 78: 1072-1075. Females are also much more vulnerable to cold winter temperatures resulting in unequal mortality during the winter and male skewed populations in the spring.
Dix, D. E., and J. N. All 1986. Population density and sex ratio dynamics of overwintering maize weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) infesting field corn. Journal of Entomological Science 21(4): 368-375. Females suffered higher winter mortality than males, resulting in increasingly male-skewed sex ratios (from 0.8/1.0 to 1.6/1.0) as winter progressed. The degree of male-skewedness was positively correlated with the amount of subzero weather experienced by each population. Surviving weevil populations decreased in size as winter progressed, with the greatest reductions at the higher latitudes. No weevils survived through spring north of 33° 57′N where winter weather extremes of −15°C occurred. No true diapausing stage was found; however, cold tolerance tests indicated that winter-collected weevils were significantly more cold hardy than laboratory-reared weevils.
Ikenaga, H., H. Nakakita, and K. Hirano. 1999. Pre- and Post-Winter Movements of Maize Weevil, Sitophilus zeamais Mots. in Japan. p. 37–42. In Proceedings of the 7th International Working Conference on Stored-Product Protection edited by Z. Jin, Q. Liang, Y. Liang, X. Tan, and L. Guan, Sichuan Publishing House of Science and Technology. From December to February weevils were caught in sticky traps but not food bait traps (moving around but not feeding or laying eggs) primarily in the receiving and temporary stock storage rooms of a rice mill where there was rice spillage residues.
Kučerová, Zuzana, Radek Aulický, and Václav Stejskal 2007. Sitophilus granarius (Curculionidae): Outdoor occurrence in vicinity of a grain store. Integrated Protection of Stored Products IOBC/wprs Bulletin 30(2) 167-171. Field populations must be mobile at low temperatures given their being caught in outdoor food baits during winter, but at such temperatures they were not able to lay eggs (no immature infestation found in wheat from bait traps held for emergence).
Nakakita, H., and H. Ikenaga. 1997. Action of Low Temperature on Physiology of Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky and Sitophilus oryzae (L) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Rice Storage. Journal of Stored Products Research 33 (1): 31–38. The weevils walk even at 10oC.
Sitotroga cerealella
Buchelos, C. T. 1980. Moth populations at a typical flour mill. Ann. Inst. Phytopathol. Benaki (n.s.) 12: 188-197. Trapping and commodity samples showed that more Ephestia kuehniella, Sitotroga cerealella adults were found during the winter on damper ground floor or basement than on upper floors with colder temperatures. Cadra cautella, Plodia interpunctella and Pyralis farinalis adults were also more abundant on ground floor and in basement and decline during the winter months. Plodia diapause as mature larvae.
Machekano, H., Mvumi, B.M. and Nyamukondiwa, C. 2018. Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier) resilience to extreme temperature and desiccation may explain its increasing pest status in changing climates. p. 165–171. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Working Conference on Stored Product Protection (IWCSPP), 7–11 October 2018, Berlin, Germany. Julius-Kühn-Archiv 463
Tsvetkov, D. 1965. The winter cooling of stored cereals and of their products as a cheap and effective means for the control of storehouse pests. Rastitelna Zashtita 13(1): 12-17. Low temperatures have been used in Bulgaria for more than 10 years as a means of controlling stored grain insects during the winter but has not always been done adequately. In 1952-1953, the grain moth Sitotroga cerealella became very numerous, but numbers fell sharply in 1954 following prolonged cold during winter. Mortality of Sitophilus granarius and Sitophilus oryzae was also high.
Tribolium castaneum
Bahr, I., 1978. Uberwinterungsversuche mit Schadinsekten der Getreidevorrate in ungeheizten Raumen (Overwintering experiments with insect pests of grain stocks in unheated rooms). Nachrichtenblatt-fur-den-Pflanzenschutz-in-der-DDR. Berl 32: 224-230. (Ahasverus advena, Araecerus fasciculatus, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Cryptolestes pusillus, Crypolestes turcicus, Oryzaephilus mercator, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus granarius, Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus zeamais, Sitotroga cerealella, Tribolium castaneum, Tribolium confusum)
Bareil, N., K. Crépon, and F. Piraux. 2018. Prediction of insect mortality in cooled stored grain. Journal of Stored Products Research 78: 110-117. Conditions necessary to kill 7 major insect pests (Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus granarius, Rhyzopertha dominica, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Tribolium castaneum and Tribolium confusum) was correctly predicted by a model in 77.2% of cases. Species cold tolerance ranking varied depending on the temperature levels and difference of cold tolerance between adult and immature stages depended greatly on species. A temperature of 0oC is sufficient to kill 6 major insect pest species within 3 months, but not Cryptolestes ferrugineus.
Burks, Charles S., and David W. Hagstrum. 1999. Rapid cold hardening capacity in five species of coleopteran pests of stored grain. Journal of Stored Products Research 35(1): 65-75. Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus oryzae, Tribolium castaneum
Cotton, R. T., and .J. C. Frankenfeld. 1942. Killing mill insects by freezing. American Miller 70(9): 29-30. A Kansas mill in January was exposed for 48 hours to prevailing outdoor temperatures of -5°F. While the coldest temperature within the mill reached 2° F., the temperature inside a bag of sweepings went down to only 24° F. and other accumulations of grain dust were similarly higher. At the end of this exposure some Tribolium, Tenebroides, and Cryptolestes (Laemophloeus) were still alive.
Daglish, Gregory J. 2006. Survival and reproduction of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) and Sitophilus oryzae (L.) following periods of starvation. Journal of Stored Products Research 42(3): 328-338. At 30oC and 55% or 70% r.h., the number of progeny was a better indicator of the impact of starvation on a species than adult survival. Tribolium castaneum was the most tolerant species, requiring up to 35 d starvation before no progeny were produced. Rhyzopertha dominica and S. oryzae required up to 8 d starvation before no progeny were produced. The results suggest that hygiene will have a greater impact on populations of S. oryzae and R. dominica than T. castaneum.
Ducoff, HS, AP Vaughan, and Crosslan.JL. 1970. Sensitivity to Starvation as an Index of Physiological Age in Tribolium. Experimental Gerontology 5(3): 223–240. Survival time of adult Tribolium under conditions of complete starvation decreased markedly as a function of age. In T. castaneum, this decrease was greater in females, but in T. confusum, the decrease was greater in males.
Fields, PG, and NDG White 1997. Survival and Multiplication of Stored-Product Beetles at Simulated and Actual Winter Temperatures. Canadian Entomologist 129(5): 887–898. Two years of overwintering mortality for C. ferrugineus and R. dominica were obtained from 11–13 farm granaries (40–100 t wheat). In the field, there was no survival of C. ferrugineus in granaries that had February temperatures of −6.7 °C or lower. No T. castaneum or R. dominica survived an entire winter in granaries during the 2 years.
Gilad, T., R. Koren, Y. Moalem, A. Subach, and I. Scharf. 2018. Effect of Continuous and Alternating Episodes of Starvation on Behavior and Reproduction in the Red Flour Beetle. Journal of Zoology 305(4): 213–22. Starvation led to a decline in body mass and water content, but beetles became less active delaying emigration and discovery new food patches, and had fewer offspring. Females were generally larger and more starvation tolerant than males. Feeding reduced effects of starvation in most cases.
Good, Newell E. 1937. Insects found in the milling streams of flour mills in the southwestern milling area. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 10(4): 135-148. Modern mills, heated and sometimes even air-conditioned, and frequently operating 24 hours a day over long periods, offer almost ideal conditions for the continuous breeding and development of insect pests. In 1932 and 1934-35, 8-ounce samples were collected monthly from each of 24 elevator boots and other mill streams of 19 selected flour mills in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Missouri. Tribolium adults comprised their greatest per centage (74.6) of the total in the November-December collections and their lowest percentage (36.1) in the following month of January. Tribolium larvae and pupae had lowest percentage (16.9) in November-December (breeding is lowest during the winter months). Cryptolestes (Laemophloeus) spp. were most numerous during January and March (18.7 and 19.3 percent respectively). Latheticus oryzae and, to a lesser extent, Rhizopertha dominica were abundant during the summer and fall but scarce in the winter and spring. Tenebroides mauritanicus shows in its seasonal abundance the same geographical distribution and uniform distribution throughout the different mill streams.
Khare, B. P. 1965. Starvation Resistance Of Some Coleopterous Insect Pests of Stored Grain. Indian Journal of Entomology 27(4): 489-490. Trogoderma granarium, Tribolium castaneum, Rhyzopertha dominica. The periods after which the first deaths occurred were similar for all instars of all three species, and so were the periods to the last deaths of the first-instar larvae, but larvae of Trogoderma in the later instars survived for up to 261-321 days, as compared with 22-32 days for Tribolium and 19-24 for Rhyzopertha. It was noted that the Trogoderma larvae, unlike the others, ceased moulting, became smaller in size and lighter in colour, lost most of their setae and did not pupate; consumption of food reserves is suggested as a reason for this. Some larvae of the other species pupated.
Mu, Zhenya, Jin Wang, Yan Zhang, Xiaozhe Qi, Li Li, and Jinying Chen. 2021. Effect of Temperature Gradient of Grain Storage on Migration and Distribution of Three Pests. J Biomed Res Environ Sci. 2(7): 632-640. Sitophilus oryzae, Rhizopertha dominica and Tribolium castaneum
Nowosielski-Slepowron, B. J. A., F. L. Waterhouse, and D. E. A. Strevens 1968. Sub-zero mortality responses of Tribolium confusum Duval (two stocks) and T. castaneum (Herbst) (four stocks) analyzed by weighted regression lines based on individual temperature LD50’s. Physiological Zoology 41(4): 440-446.
Rilett, Omar. 1956. Winter Insect Control Programs Are Essential in Food Plants. Pest Control 24 (9): 34, 36. Locations with insects were similar in all mills, both heated and unheated. Temperatures were not cold enough to eliminate insects. Most of the 23 beetle species were only adults. All Attagenus unicolor (reported as Attagenus piceus) and Tenebrio molitor were larvae. Tenebrio obscurus, Tenebroides mauritanicus and Tribolium confusum were a mix of adults and larvae.
Rilett, R. Omar and Robert D. Weigel 1956. A Winter Survey of Coleoptera In Feed and Flour Mills. Journal of Economic Entomology 49(2): 154–156. A winter survey of 11 feed and flour mills at Buffalo, New York, between October 1954 and March 1955 showed significant residual insect populations. Samples consisted of whole grain, processed foods, floor sweepings, debris that had accumulated between the floor boards and in the corners of rooms, grain dust on and within mill machinery, grain, flour, and dust at the base of chutes and other places peculiar to the mills investigated. A total of 2632 insects representing 23 species were recovered from approximately 27 pounds of sample material. The temperatures of samples collected ranged from 3°C. to 26°C. Attagenus unicolor as Attagenus piceus (8 mills), Oryzaephilus surinamensis (8 mills), Tenebroides mauritanicus (6 mills) and Tribolium confusum (5 mills) were the most widespread. Tribolium confusum, Attagenus unicolor, Gnathocerus cornutus, Silophilus oryzae, and Tribolium castaneum, in the above order of abundance, constituted the hulk of the insects collected. Although insects are thought to be scarce during the winter, the large number of beetles recovered shows that the insect population of mills may be quite high in winter for both heated and unheated mills given that sample material examined was only a minute fraction of residual food material present in the mills. Only one insect was found in one mill with the policy of cleaning completely, every 2 weeks each crack and crevice where refuse accumulates.
Shakoori, A. R., Mushtao A Saleem and Naveeda Tufail 1988. Evaluation of Loss of Total Body Weight And Mortality of Tribolium castaneum after Starvation. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 20(1): 1–11. Sixth instar larvae had greater loss in total body weight, total body water content and mortality than adult beetles at 30oC and 75% rh. Total starvation produced 100% mortality of larvae in 15 days and adults in 18 days.
Simwat, G. S., and B. S. Chahal. 1969. Survival of Larvae and Adults of Tribolium castaneum Herbst (Tenebrionidae: Coleoptera) Under Starved Conditions. Bulletin Of Grain Technology 7(3): 143–145. Larvae (0-12 hour and 20 day old) survived for mean 9.8 days 20oC, 6.1 at 25oC, 5.4 at 30oC, 5.5 at 35oC and 4.3 at 40oC. Adults survived mean 25.8 days at 20oC, 10.9 at 25oC, 10 at 30oC, 7,6 at 35oC and 5.7 at 40oC. Relative humidity did not affect duration of survival.
Sverdlov, E., and D. Wool. 1975. Some Aspects of Survival of Starved Adult Tribolium castaneum (Herbst). Journal of Stored Products Research 11(3–4): 149-154. Survival of females was low when they were placed in medium 5-10 days before starvation, apparently because of oviposition activity. Heavier beetles of each sex survived more than lighter ones. Beetles starved for several days regained their initial weight when medium was made available. Outbred strains survived longer than inbred.
Tribolium confusum
Bahr, I., 1978. Uberwinterungsversuche mit Schadinsekten der Getreidevorrate in ungeheizten Raumen (Overwintering experiments with insect pests of grain stocks in unheated rooms). Nachrichtenblatt-fur-den-Pflanzenschutz-in-der-DDR. Berl 32: 224-230. (Ahasverus advena, Araecerus fasciculatus, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Cryptolestes pusillus, Crypolestes turcicus, Oryzaephilus mercator, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus granarius, Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus zeamais,Sitotroga cerealella, Tribolium castaneum, Tribolium confusum)
Bareil, N., K. Crépon, and F. Piraux. 2018. Prediction of insect mortality in cooled stored grain. Journal of Stored Products Research 78: 110-117. Conditions necessary to kill 7 major insect pests (Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus granarius, Rhyzopertha dominica, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Tribolium castaneum and Tribolium confusum) was correctly predicted by a model in 77.2% of cases. Species cold tolerance ranking varied depending on the temperature levels and difference of cold tolerance between adult and immature stages depended greatly on species. A temperature of 0oC is sufficient to kill 6 major insect pest species within 3 months, but not Cryptolestes ferrugineus.
Buchelos, C. T. 1981. Coleoptera Populations at Flour Mills and Related Areas. Ann. Inst. Phytopath. Benaki 13: 6–29. Trapping and commodity samples showed that more Cryptolestes ferrugineus, Lasioderma serricorne, Oryzaephilus mercator, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Palorus subdepressus, Sitophilus granarius, Sitophilus oryzae, and Tribolium confusum adults survived winter on damper ground floor or basement than on upper floors with colder temperatures. Rhyzoperta was not found on upper floors from December to March and few were found on ground floor or basement during these months.
Ducoff, HS, AP Vaughan, and Crosslan.JL. 1970. Sensitivity to Starvation as an Index of Physiological Age in Tribolium. Experimental Gerontology 5(3): 223–240. Survival time of adult Tribolium under conditions of complete starvation decreased markedly as a function of age. In T. castaneum, this decrease was greater in females, but in T. confusum, the decrease was greater in males.
Nowosielski-Slepowron, B. J. A., F. L. Waterhouse, and D. E. A. Strevens 1968. Sub-zero mortality responses of Tribolium confusum Duval (two stocks) and T. castaneum (Herbst) (four stocks) analyzed by weighted regression lines based on individual temperature LD50’s. Physiological Zoology 41(4): 440-446.
Rilett, Omar. 1956. Winter Insect Control Programs Are Essential in Food Plants. Pest Control 24 (9): 34, 36. Locations with insects were similar in all mills, both heated and unheated. Temperatures were not cold enough to eliminate insects. Most of the 23 beetle species were only adults. All Attagenus unicolor (reported as Attagenus piceus) and Tenebrio molitor were larvae. Tenebrio obscurus, Tenebroides mauritanicus and Tribolium confusum were a mix of adults and larvae.
Rilett, R. Omar and Robert D. Weigel 1956. A Winter Survey of Coleoptera In Feed and Flour Mills. Journal of Economic Entomology 49(2): 154–156. A winter survey of 11 feed and flour mills at Buffalo, New York, between October 1954 and March 1955 showed significant residual insect populations. Samples consisted of whole grain, processed foods, floor sweepings, debris that had accumulated between the floor boards and in the corners of rooms, grain dust on and within mill machinery, grain, flour, and dust at the base of chutes and other places peculiar to the mills investigated. A total of 2632 insects representing 23 species were recovered from approximately 27 pounds of sample material. The temperatures of samples collected ranged from 3°C. to 26°C. Attagenus unicolor as Attagenus piceus (8 mills), Oryzaephilus surinamensis (8 mills), Tenebroides mauritanicus (6 mills) and Tribolium confusum (5 mills) were the most widespread. Tribolium confusum, Attagenus unicolor, Gnathocerus cornutus, Silophilus oryzae, and Tribolium castaneum, in the above order of abundance, constituted the hulk of the insects collected. Although insects are thought to be scarce during the winter, the large number of beetles recovered shows that the insect population of mills may be quite high in winter for both heated and unheated mills given that sample material examined was only a minute fraction of residual food material present in the mills. Only one insect was found in one mill with the policy of cleaning completely, every 2 weeks each crack and crevice where refuse accumulates.
Salmond, K. F. 1956. The insect and mite fauna of a Scottish flour mill. Bull. Entomol. Res. 47: 621-630. The mill in question is one of the most northerly in Britain. Three most important pests were found to be Ephestia kuehniella Zell., Gnathocerus cornutus (F.) and Tribolium confusum Duv. It is suggested that Endrosis sarcitrella, Tipnus unicolor and Cryptophagus cellaris might be included in the list of “ hardy ” insects under winter conditions in Britain. Endrosis sarcitrella and Hofmannophila pseudospretella over winter to emerge in Spring.
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